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Stracke, J., & Berger, A. (2012). Project on paternal effects to the cognitive and social development of the offspring on feral horses (Equus caballus). In K. Krueger, & (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Horses provide an interesting animal model to test short- and long-term effects of the paternal influence on the offspring under natural conditions. As a highly social animal, horse naturally is living in long-term harem groups building strong familiar bonds. Arguing that the environment of a juvenile is highly important for the development of cognitive and social functions as well as for the emotional competence, a future study on domestic horses wants to highlight the paternal influence on the offspring as well as special effects of the stallion during the first two years of the foals´ life. Nowadays, in most husbandry systems it is still common to keep the stallions separated, raising the offspring in an intact harem group is very rare. The aim of this study is to describe the role of the stallion in the early development of the foal in an extensive pasture management system living in natural harem groups. Results are going to be compared to findings of studies on groups without the male present in the rearing phase. A precise behavioural analysis is planned; direct behavioural observations are going to be supported by long-term and continuously activity measures by special telemetry collar systems. Additional physiological measures should give evidence of the investment of the stallion. The young horses will be confronted with different tests of cognitive and social abilities (exploration behaviour, fear behaviour, play behaviour). The results of this study will contribute to fundamental research in the behaviour of the horse and might display an important step to animal welfare in modern horse husbandry. It will be possible to set a time-frame in which the male does have positive influence on the offspring and therefore should be kept with the family. A detailed knowledge of the influence of the male to cognitive and social abilities could as well be applicable in the training of horses and therefore be of great importance in equestrian sports.
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Dalla Costa, E., Rabolini, A., Scelsa, A., Canali, E., & Minero, M. (2012). A study on inter-observer reliability of castration pain assessment in horses. In K. Krueger, & (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Pain evaluation is a key issue for equine welfare and it is often cause of concern because it is difficult to determine its intensity and duration. This is essential when different people are looking after the animals and they need to decide when or not giving analgesics to guarantee the welfare of the subject. The most widely used technique to determine pain in horses is identifying pain related behaviors. The aim of this study was to determine inter-observer reliability of two different assessors evaluating pain related behaviors in horses undergoing castration. 8 stallions of different breed, aged between 2 and 4 years, were included in the study. All the subjects underwent routine castration (closed technique in general anesthesia). The subjects were placed in an observation box for 5 days and their behavior was recorded for 15 minutes before the surgery and 4, 8, 16, 24 and 40 hours after intervention. Two blind observers, using a given ethogram of horse pain related behaviors modified from literature (for a review Ashley, 2005), analyzed horses behavior at each interval. Descriptive statistics and K Kendall test were performed. Observers agreed significantly assessing agitation, reluctance to move, kicking the abdomen, lethargy, rolling, attention and curiosity (P<0.05), however agreement was low for head movements, stretching, flank watching, lowered head carriage, weight shifting, abnormal movement, fixed stare. Our results show that assessing pain in horses should be a cause of concern, because different pain related behaviors are difficult to identify and to have agreement between two observers. Training of care takers of horses on identification of specific behaviors is needed to standardize pain assessment. Acknowledgements: The authors wish to thank the EU VII Framework programme (FP7-KBBE-2010-4) for financing the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) project and for providing funds for Emanuela Dalla Costa and Michela Minero to present this paper.
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Ermilina, J. A. (2012). Dominance hierarchy in feral horses in Rostov Region. In K. Krueger, & (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Horses maintain the social structure through the establishment of dominant-subordinate hierarchical relationships, both within and between groups. The object of study was the feral horse population, living on the Vodnyi Isl, Manych-Ghudilo Lake, on the territory of Rostov Region, S Russia the State Nature Biosphere Reserve “Rostov”. The social structure of this population is represented by the harem and bachelor groups, and their variety – the “mixed”groups, the presence and composition of which is atypical for the populations of feral horses. The main objectives of this work were to identify the hierarchical structure of different types of social groups and the role of the stallions in them, defining the dominance rank of animals. The method of continuous logging occurred aggressive reaction, ritualized interaction between stallions, take into account the direction of interactions between individuals. We observed 5 harem, 3 bachelor and 3 mixed groups. Each group was studied for a total of 60 h (8 h per group per days).Behavioral observations were carried out in summer 2009-2011. Based on the number and direction of aggressive interactions the hierarchical coefficient was calculated for individual horses (Ivanov et al, 2007). Harem group consists of an adult stallion (<5 years old) and a few mares with their offspring. Our observations of harem groups confirm the previously known information about this type of social groups (Berger, 1986; Carson, Wood-Gush, 1983, Keiper, 1983). Hierarchical system between mares is close to linear with reversal. The stallion is not included in the hierarchy of the mares; he is the leader and serves to maintain the integrity of the group and inter-group hierarchy, and has reproductive function. Bachelor groups consist of stallions 2-3 years and older who do not have their own harem. It is known that dominance hierarchy in these groups is linear, young males or males who recently had joined the group have low ranks (Berger, 1977; Houpt, Keiper, 1982; Kirillov Paklina, 1990). In observed bachelor groups dominant stallion have a significantly higher rank in the hierarchy. However, among other stallions is not always observed strict linear hierarchy – some individuals have very similar ranks. Function of managing the group and maintaining the intergroup hierarchy can be distributed among the all stallions in the group. Mixed groups are composed of several mature stallions, one or more mares (sometimes with the offspring). In the study population in this type of social groups animals may be mature (age 5 and older) and semi-mature (2-5 years). The hierarchy of these atypical groups has not been studied. In the studied 3 mixed groups stallions have very similar hierarchical rank, dominant and subordinate stallions share a function of managing the group, participation in ritualized interactions. Our studies have revealed the plasticity of the hierarchical structure of groups of horses and the need to further investigate the distribution of social roles among stallions.
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Flauger, B., & Krueger, K. (2012). Social feeding decisions in horses (Equus caballus). In Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Like many other herbivores equids feed on rather evenly distributed resources. Especially in ruminants several studies have proved the influence of social organisations, rank, sex and the depletion of feeding sites on the feeding behaviour of individuals. However, it is not yet understood whether social aspects affect horses´ feeding decisions. Horses roam on vast habitats with constantly changing vegetation. In non-competitive situations domestic horses tend to return to the same feeding site until it is overgrazed. Whereas, for competition over limited food the social status of the individuals appears to be important. Curiosity about the influence of social rank and different social feeding conditions on the horses´ feeding decisions between two buckets, equally filled with high-quality surplus food, led us to create the test situation described here. The observer horses were alternately tested with a dominant and a subordinate demonstrator placed in one of three different positions. We conclude that domestic horses use cognitive strategic decision making in order to decide where to feed in a social feeding situation. When possible they tend to return to the same, continuously supplied feeding site and switch to an “avoidance tendency” when another horse is already feeding from it or in the presence of a dominant horse. Thus the position and the social rank of conspecifics affect the feeding strategy of horses.
Keywords: Feeding decision; Horse; Rank; Social behaviour
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Bouskila, A., de Vries, H., Hermans, Z. M., & van Dierendonck, M. (2012). Leadership roles in movements of free-roaming Konik horses (Equus caballus) in a Dutch reserve. In K. Krueger, & (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: We observed the activity and movements of Konik horses (Equus caballus) in order to determine the initiators of movements and the individuals taking the lead in movements of the main groups. We conducted our observations between March-June 2010 along the shores of the Rhine river, in the Blauwe Kamer reserve, in the Netherlands. The horses were introduced to the reserve alongside with cattle to prevent the growth of the forest and maintain the grass habitat. We videotaped all observations on two digital video cameras, one providing the general view of the group and the other scanning and focusing on the individuals, to aid with identification. Horses were recognized based on individual profiles that were created for each one, consisting of photos of both sides and notes of the main characters, such as orientation and coloration of the mane, prominent scars and markings, etc. Twenty three horses (not counting foals) were organized in two harem groups with 11 individuals (two of which were dominant stallions) in the large group and six individuals (one of which was a stallion) in the second group. These two main groups were always within sight of each other, and two bachelor males moved usually in their vicinity. An additional group of three young bachelor males roamed elsewhere in the reserve. We divided the movements of the horses to local movements while grazing and to long-distance movements, in which the horses moved to a different grazing location, to a pond of water, resting area or groups of trees that were used by the horses for scratching themselves. During the local movements, any two of the three oldest females in the large harem group were enough to cause the whole group to follow them and gradually change position within the pasture. The smaller harem always followed the large harem’s movements. The long-distance movements of the large harem were sometimes initiated by one of the harem stallions that herded their group and at other times – by the oldest females. Soon after the movement was clearly initiated, the dominant stallions positioned themselves in the back of the group or in the center and had no influence on the direction of move that was only determined by the leading females. In the long-distance movements too, the small harem followed the large harem group, and the two bachelor males usually followed behind them. Social interactions included aggressive interactions between the two dominant males within the large harem or between dominant stallions and the two bachelor males accompanying the two harems. In addition, dominant males courting or attempting to mate with mares sometimes caused a turmoil that eventually initiated movement of the harems. KW -
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Szarka, A., Nagy, K., & Maros, K. (2012). Approaching a horse, approaching a human: Tolerating and seeking human contact in pastured horses. In K. Krueger, & (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: We tested untrained horses (foals and breeding mares) in 3 different breeding centres. Horses were kept in a pasture during daytime in bigger groups (median 12, min: 6, max 35 / pasture) according to age, gender and breed (hungarian halfbred, hucul, arabian and thoroughbred). To measure their reactions to an unfamiliar person we conducted an active and a passive human test. In the active human test the test person (TP) approached a focal animal in the group from a predetermined direction: from their front, from their side (left or right) or from the rear. As TP reached the horse (of app. 0.5 m distance), she tried to pet the animal’s head. The TP always chose and approached a standing or a grazing horse (ie. those that were not walking, galloping, playing etc.). The horse’s reaction to the approaching human was scored 1-5. Score 1: the horse moved away and the TP could not even approach it within 0.5 m; Score 2: the horse made max. 2 steps away, but could be reached and petted; Score 3 and Score 4: the horse stood in its place but showed different signs of discomfort (head turn – Score 3; backing ears, tail slash – Score 4); Score 5: the horse stood and did not show any sign of discomfort or actively approached the TP. There was no significant difference in the horses’ reaction between approaching from their left or right side. Approaching from their front or from their side (left or right) did not differ significantly either. However, the odds of walking away from the TP (score 1 or 2) was 2.7 (Fisher-test, p=0.039) and 3.3 (p=0.012) times higher when TP approached from the rear compared to approaching from their front or from their side (left or right), respectively. In the passive human test the TP stood immobile for 4 minutes in 5 or 10 m far from the horses during their active (grazing) or inactive (standing idle during noon) period. Horses approached TP significantly sooner (general linear model, p=0.017) when she stood 5m distance (38 ±63 s) compared to 10m (97 ±52 s). The arrival of a second horse after the first horse approached the TP showed significant high correlation with the latency of the first horse arrival (Pearson correlation, r=0.96, p<0.001). The horses were less keen (p=0.008) to approach the human when they were tested in an inactive period (177 ±110 s) compare to active period (38 ±63 s).
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Kaplan, G. (2015). Social animals and Communication, with special reference to horses. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg, in prep. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
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Palme, R. (2015). Non-invasive monitoring of stress hormones for welfare assessment in domestic and wild equids. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg, in prep. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Stress responses play an important role in allowing animals to cope with challenges. Glucocorticoids, key elements in the neuroendocrine stress axis, are traditionally measured as a parameter for welfare assessment. As blood sample collection itself disturbs an animal, non-invasive or minimal invasive methods have gained importance for assessing stress. In horses saliva and faeces are most frequently used. Faecal samples offer the advantage that they can be collected easily and stress-free. In faecal samples circulating hormone levels are integrated over a certain period of time. As a consequence faecal glucocorticoid metabolites represent the cumulative secretion and they are less affected by short episodic fluctuations of hormone secretion.
However, in order to gain reliable information about an animal’s adrenocortical activity, certain criteria have to be met: Depending whether the impact of acute or chronic stressors is assessed, frequent sampling might be necessary whereas in other cases, single samples will suffice. Background knowledge regarding the metabolism and excretion of glucocorticoids is essential and a careful validation is obligatory. In addition, this presentation will address analytical issues regarding sample storage, extraction procedures, and immunoassays and various examples of a successful application in equids will be given. Applied properly, non-invasive techniques to monitor stress hormones are a useful tool for animal welfare assessment. |
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Rubenstein, D. (2015). Social Networks: Linking Form with Function in Equid Societies. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg, in prep. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Animal societies develop from interactions and relationships that occur among individuals within populations. The fundamental tenet of behavioral ecology is that ecological factors shape behavior and determine the distribution and associations of individuals on landscapes. As a result, different social systems emerge in different habitats and under different environmental conditions. Since characterizing social systems depends on time and motion studies of individual actions and interactions that are often bilateral, such characterizations are often coarse-grained. If social relationships can be characterized using social networks, however, seemingly similar social organizations often reveal informative differences in terms of deep structure. Thus social network theory should be able to provide insights in to the connections between social form and function. This talk will explore how the network structures of horses, zebras and asses can provide novel insights into the functioning of animal societies with respect to the spread of memes, genes and diseases.
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Kaczensky, P. (2015). Conservation of Asiatic wild asses. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
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