Abstract: The Asiatic Wild Ass, Equus hemionus, was once abundant in western Asia. The species declined due to hunting and habitat loss. Between 1982-93 38 E. hemionus (21? 17?) that originated from Iran and Turkmenistan were reintroduced to the Negev Desert, Israel. Saltz, Rubinstein and co-workers studied the released population till 1999. The current population in the Negev is estimated at more than 200 individuals, yet, their social and genetic structures are not known. Here we report group composition and behavior of E. hemionus near a water sources from the 2010 and 2011 field seasons, which is part of a wider study of the mating system and genetic diversity. We recorded and videotaped group composition and social interactions from a shelter, 150m from the water source. We recorded a total of 377 observations, in which 251 only males were observed, in 105 observations we observed females and juveniles, and only in 21 cases we observed a mixed group of females with at least one male. Not all wild asses were individually identified, but so far, we analyzed data from 69 individual profiles (based on photos), and recorded in which groups were they videotaped. Before reaching the water source, wild asses often aggregate in large groups and wait for the first few individuals to approach cautiously the water, and only then the rest of the individuals make a swift final approach. We did not consider these aggregations as social groups. We defined a group when individuals approached or left together the valley in which the water source is located. In a few encounters between E. hemionus and wolves (around sunset) we noticed that the wild asses showed interest in the wolves and increased alertness, but the wolves did not approach the equids under these conditions. Female groups (including those with a male) were larger than male-only groups (range 2-49 and 1-34, respectively; P =0.0191). From records of individuals observed more than once, individuals appear on different days in groups of various sizes and compositions, suggesting a social structure with a certain degree of fission-fusion. The mean proportion of juveniles per female was 0.57 and this value is higher than the average found in the 1990’s study (0.5). Apart from the proliferation of the population, an important difference between the earlier and the current study stems from the fact that the E. hemionus in the Negev Desert expanded their range and it includes now the Negev Highlands, an area with slightly more mesic and stable conditions. Except for Sep., fewer adult females were observed compared to males (P=0.028). Different daily activity patterns of the two sexes may explain this observation. These results will be combined with the genetic work and will contribute to the assessment of population viability.

Abstract: It is advantageous to identify individuals who are likely to behave fairly and those who are not. This ability to judge others’ fairness seems important for social species to interact or cooperate with their partners. Domestic horses (Equus caballus) have lived with humans for over five thousand years, hence they might have developed sensitivity to human personality. In the present study, we investigated whether horses would discriminate between a person who behaved fairly and a person who behaved unfairly. Specifically, we asked whether horses show a preference for the former. We tested 12 horses (11 thoroughbred and 1 Anglo-Arabian horses) at the horseback-riding club of Kyoto University. They were divided into 6 pairs which consisted of a participant and a partner. A participant was picketed between two polls next to a partner at the hoof washing place. Each horse put his/her mouth in an actor’s hand when the actor (an unfamiliar person) stood in front of them, and then received food from the actor. A fair actor always behaved fairly and gave a small quantity of hay (low-value food) to both of them in return for the task. An unfair actor always behaved unfairly, giving a small quantity of hay to the participant in return for the task, but always giving a piece of carrot (high-value food) to the partner in return for the task. Both actors always stood in front of the partner first, so the partner always did the task and received food from the actor before the participant. Finally, the participant was offered a piece of carrot by the two actors. The participant indicated which offer was accepted by stretching toward the chosen actor. The latter then moved the hand forward to allow the participant to take the food while the other actor’s hand withdrew. The orders (1st or 2nd) and the positions (left or right) of the two actors varied pseudo-randomly across trials. The color of the clothes of the two actors (white or black) was counterbalanced between sessions. We conducted 8 sessions, consisting of 8 experimental trials, across which the actors maintained their respective roles (fair or unfair) of the fair and unfair person. Furthermore, the two actors switched roles across sessions so that they played both roles the same number of times. One session was run per day. If horses can discriminate between fair and unfair people and show a preference for the former, they should choose the former significantly more often than the latter when both actors offered food. The participants showed no overall preference for accepting food from either actor. However, three of six participants showed a side preference. The result of the present study suggests that horses are insensitive to humans’ fairness. Horses may not have expectations about fair treatment.

Abstract: Conservation of endangered species in zoos and other protected areas has saved several species from extinction. The Przewalski horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) is one of that species and, being an attractive large ungulate, it is a “flagship species” for conservation projects. Reintroduction into its former habitat is accompanied by many difficulties and is a great challenge. Semireserves have been defined as enclosures large enough to maintain groups of Przewalski horses throughout all seasons of the year without any supplemental provisioning. The animals are kept isolated from external human influences as far as possible, except for necessary interventions such as veterinary care. Hence, the purpose is not limited to preparing animals for survival under natural conditions, but is equally related to the need to gain experience in establishment of free-ranging populations. Naturally, horses live in groups in which all individuals are long-term acquainted with each other and a stable hierarchical system is established. In conservation management an integration of horses into strange groups is often need but at the same time implies social fights, stress and risks for the animals. We investigated the integration process of 4 Przewalski horses from Zoo Leipzig into the herd of 5 Przewalski horses in the semireserve Liebenthal (Brandenburg, Germany). Before transportation the social structure was determined in both the herd in Zoo Leipzig and in Liebenthal. After transportation the social hierarchy and the individual dominance indices were determined by daily observation. Continuous records of activity and feeding were taken from several individuals using the ETHOSYS-storage telemetry system. The automatically recorded behaviours were analysed for daily and ultradian rhythms and used for stress detection by calculating a value (DFC) representative for regularity and stability of rhythmic structures. In zoo conditions, the behaviour was very regular and the daily pattern nearly identical from day to day as expressed by DFC´s near of 100%. After transportation, the behaviour became much less regular, DFC´s dropped significantly, recovered slowly and stabilised on values typically for semireserve conditions. Social bindings and dominances of the former two herds were mainly retained. As an important result, long lasting and stepwise transition from zoo to natural habitats with special training using new observing techniques can be strongly recommended.

Abstract: Group housed horses at a stud farm/riding stable in Belgium were observed on 17 days between 21 February and 25 April 2008, totalling 54hr25min of detailed data. The original group consisted of 8 Irish Cob mares, 1 Warmblood mare, 1 Arabian gelding and 2 Arabian mares. The group had been established in December 2007. During the course of the study 5 horses were removed from the group and 2 foals were born. 3 highly pregnant mares were housed adjacent to the group for part of the period. Horses were regularly used for lessons. Available surface area differed with the group on pasture at the end. Continuous all occurrence sampling of 10 agonistic and 2 affiliative behaviours was carried out for all group members present. Overall the group showed a frequency of 44.75 agonistic interactions per hour and 11.25 affiliative per hour. Of those agonistic interactions 46.3% were threats while 47% were less active interactions (displacement, being avoided), leaving only 6.7% more aggressive interactions ( mainly biting, some kicking and chasing). The effect on acting agonistically was not significant for age (p=0.1591) and borderline significant for density (p=0.0627). The analysis of the frequency of affiliative interactions showed there is no significant effect of age (p=0.1865) or density (p=0.7923). Agonistic and affiliative interactions were not significantly correlated (p=0.72). Affiliative behaviour a horse received showed a borderline effect (p=0.0787) on agonistic behaviour, as did the interaction between received agonistic and affiliative interactions (p=0.0725). Received agonistic interactions had a borderline negative effect (p=0.0656) on affiliative behaviour. A dominance hierarchy was calculated based on agonistic interactions using Empirical Bayes’ estimates based on Poisson regression with random effects. Agonistic behaviour expressed to other horses was significantly effected by relative rank (p=0.0243). Overall horses tended to be 3.7 times more aggressive towards lower ranking horses compared to higher ranking horses. Affiliative behaviour shown to other horses was not significantly influenced by the rank of the social partner (p=0.7915). Some individuals did show a significant effect whereby they showed more affiliative behaviour towards lower ranking individuals. This study was a small project to look at a practical situation of riding horses being kept in group housing. The frequent changes in group composition and available surface made it possible to look at agonistic and affiliative interactions in such circumstances. This is useful as instability in group composition is often used as main reason not to keep horses in social groups. The results from this study showed a borderline effect of density on agonistic behaviour. In reality it was also influenced by practical details, like a narrow paddock with only 2 hay crates on the smallest surface. Rank in a dominance hierarchy, based on agonistic behaviour, had a significant effect on the agonistic behaviour expressed towards higher or lower ranking horses. No injuries or escalating fights were observed. This study shows it is possible to keep a group of riding horses in a social context without excessive aggression.

Abstract: This study was conducted to identify common husbandry and management practices associated with domestic horses in Northern Nigeria. Fifty (50) of the horse was purposely selected as units of analysis. Primary data was generated by means of a pre-tested, semi-structured questionnaire administered to the sampled respondents. A simple inductive statistics was applied to the primary data. The study revealed that the whole facilities studied 50(100%) had a prior experience with horses. A large number of horses, mostly West African Dongola and West African Barb are kept solely for pleasure or ceremonial purposes (60%). While the other breeds of horses like Argentine (6%) and South Africa polo ponies (2%) are kept for polo. Recently, the Sudan country-bred (4%) and Western Sudan pony (6%) have found a place in West African polo. Other breeds found within the facilities studied are Argentine criollo; Nigerian ponies and various crosses. Only 10% of the facilities had breeding stocks with only 2% carrying out artificial insemination while 8% do natural mating. The housing management system includes stables (40%) and open fields (60%) where horses are tethered. Bedding materials includes straws (50%); sand (20%) and wood shavings (30%). Feed grade provided include a combination of rations-bran; cracked grain and hay (40%), Bran; cracked grain and legumes (48%) and Bran and hay (12%), all feed combination administered along with fresh grass. Watering and feeding practices involves provision of feed and water twice daily (50%) and while others provide it adlib (25%). Feeding horses with various additives accounted for 19% of the studied facilities. The health status as shown by the body condition score ranges from II-IV/V (88%) of the population studied. Routine dental care is regular (30%) with all the facilities while others (70%) are not irregular. Grooming is common in all the facilities especially within the performance horse circle. Routine hoof care including trimming and shoeing is common in 26% of the facilities while hoof trimming without shoeing is a common practice in 74% of the facilities. Orthodox medicine practiced in 80% of the studied area. While ethnoveterinary consist of 10%, while a combination of orthodox and ethnoveterinary medicine was common in 10% of the study area. Vaccination against African horse sickness equine influenza and tetanus is common in the various equine communities.Though 16% of the population do not vaccinate against any known disease. Parasite control program include pasture hygiene (4%); interval dosing (10%); continuous in-feed (4%); selective dosing (40%) and strategic dosing constitute 42%. Exercise is a common practice but intensity and duration is not strictly adhered to especially during tendon injuries. Manure management differs from facility to facility- some dispose manure within the facilities (40%) while others dispose it outside the facilities (60%). A number of clinical signs like limping, coughing, ocular and nasal discharge, swellings on the body, abnormal mucous membrane, fever, ventral oedema and reluctance to move, foul respiratory odour was observed. Clinical cases like laminitis; pigeon fever; bran disease; colic; African horse sickness; exertional rhabdomyolysis; sinusitis; piroplasmosis; dermatomycosis and tumours was observed. KW -