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Hintze, S., Smith, S., Patt, A., Bachmann, I., & Würbel, H. (2015). What eye wrinkles in horses tell us about their emotional state. In Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting.
Abstract: Wrinkles above the eye ball are common in domestic horses but may differ in number and shape both between and within individuals. They are caused by contraction of the inner eye brow raiser, and some people working with horses call them “worry wrinkles”, considering them to reflect emotional states. However, as yet no study has formally investigated the relationship between eye wrinkles and emotional state in horses.
The aim of the present study was to induce states of different emotional valence and to assess whether positive emotional states would reduce the expression of eye wrinkles while negative emotional states would increase it. Sixteen horses were confronted in a balanced order with two presumably positively and two negatively valenced situations each. Positive situations included anticipation of a food reward (FA) and petting (P), negative situations included food competition (FC) and waving a plastic bag (PB). Each situation lasted for 60s (TRT) and was preceded by a 60s control phase (CON). Throughout CON and TRT pictures of the eyes were taken, and for each horse four pictures per situation (FA, P, FC, PB) and phase (CON and TRT) were randomly selected (n = 512) and scored in random order and blind to treatment for six outcome variables: overall impression (qualitative), number, angle and markedness of eye wrinkles, presence of eye white, and shape of eye lid.
Data were analysed separately for the right and left eye using linear mixed effects models (angle, number), generalised linear mixed models (eye white, markedness), and ordered logistic regression (qualitative, shape of eye lid), with “situation” (FA, P, FC, PB), “phase” (CON, TRT) and their two-way interaction as fixed effects.
Expression of eye wrinkles did not vary consistently across “situation” and “phase”. Independent of phase, eye white appeared less frequently during P than during FA (z=-3.15, p=0.009), FC (z=-2.94, p=0.02), and PB (z=4.17, p<0.001) in the left eye and during PB (z=4.10, p 0.001) in the right eye. Similarly, wrinkles were less marked during P compared to the other situations in the left eye (FA: z=3.15, p=0.009; FC: z=-2.94, p=0.017; PB: z=4.17, p<0.001) and compared to PB in the right eye (z=4.10, p=0.001), while no differences between situations occurred in number of wrinkles, overall impression and shape of eye lid for both eyes. Consistent with our hypothesis, P induced relaxation of the underlying muscle in the right eye resulting in a wider angle compared to its control phase (interaction situation*phase: F3,10=3.71, p=0.055; post-hoc comparison: z=-3.57, p=0.009), while FC induced muscle contraction, resulting in a sharper angle in the left eye (interaction situation*phase: F3,11=6.57, p=0.011; z=3.73, p=0.005).
We conclude that emotional valence may affect characteristics of eye winkle expression in horses which might therefore be a promising indicator of horses’ emotional states, but further research is needed to validate the relevant outcome variables.
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Hinrichs, T. (2012). Group management in Active-Stables. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: In active stabling the horses live in a group and are in constant social contact with their equine companions. Separate, dedicated areas define the concept. The key element of active stabling is the automatic feeding of hard feed, minerals and forage. This ensures the correct level of feeding and encourages the horses to increase their level of activity. The organisation of the dedicated areas in active stabling is dependent on a number of factors, such as the given facilities, the planned group sizes and the commercial and working aspects.
The ongoing acquisition of knowledge from science and research, practical experience from the horse industry, and the relevant national guidelines and conditions for keeping horses, form the basis for the planning of active stabling.
For example, in Germany, an important contribution to the further development of the active stabling concept is coming from the current research by Dr Zeitler-Feicht and her team into automatic feeding systems and the arrangement of areas to lie down in the quiet space. Together they run around 500 active stabling facilities, and they made a significant contribution to the 2009 guidelines for horse husbandry in the animal protection regulations.
At the ISEM 2012, practical examples of group management in active stabling will be presented. The aim of the participants is to achieve a continuing improvement in horse husbandry, combining the requirements of animal protection with the uses of the horses.
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Hinrichs, T. (2012). Gruppen Management in Aktiv Ställen. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: In einem Aktivstall leben die Pferde in einer Gruppe und sind im ständigen Sozialkontakt mit ihren Artgenossen. Getrennte Funktionsbereiche kennzeichnen das Konzept. Das Kernstück eines Aktivstalles ist die automatisierte Fütterung für Kraft,- Mineral,- und Raufutter. Sie gewährleistet die bedarfsgerechte Fütterung und regt die Pferde zur vermehrten Bewegungsaktivität an. Die Gestaltung der Funktionsbereiche eines Aktivstalles hängt von mehreren Faktoren wie den örtlichen Gegebenheiten, geplanter Gruppengröße und -zusammensetzung sowie betriebs- und arbeitwirtschaftlichen Aspekten ab.
Die Grundlage für die Planung eines Aktivstall – Konzeptes sind die laufenden Erkenntnisgewinne aus Wissenschaft und Forschung, die praktischen Erfahrungen auf Pferdebetrieben sowie die länderspezifischen, offiziellen Richtlinien und Bestimmungen zur Pferdehaltung.
So sind z. B. in Deutschland die aktuellen Untersuchungen zu den Themen automatisierte Fütterungssysteme und Liegeflächengestaltung im Ruheraum von Frau Dr. Zeitler – Feicht und ihrem Team, den ca. 500 Aktivstallbetrieben und den seit dem Jahr 2009 geltenden Leitlinien zur Pferdehaltung unter Tierschutzgesichtspunkten wesentliche Bestimmungsparameter für die Weiterentwicklung des Aktivstall – Konzeptes.
Auf dem IESM 2012 wird den Teilnehmern das Gruppenmanagement in Aktivställen am Beispiel von Praxisbetrieben vorgestellt. Ziel ist es, eine kontinuierliche Verbesserung der Pferdehaltung im Sinne des Tierschutzes in Verbindung mit der Nutzung der Pferde zu erreichen.
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Hillgruber, F., & Zipf, G. (2012). Humans and Horses 300.000 years ago – An approach to public presentation in the research and experience centre Schöningen spears. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: We are introducing a new research and experience center located near the stripmine of Schöningen in western Germany, one of the most important archaeological sites in the world, which is scheduled to open its doors in 2013. The 1995 discovery of wooden hunting spears (Thieme 1997) in conjunction with the remains of hunted and butchered horses (Equus mosbachensis) contributed significantly to change the scientific view of early European Hominids being “marginal scavengers” (Binford 1981, Gamble 1987) to skilled hunters. The remains of at least 19 horses were unearthed along a former lakeshore. Initial publications demonstrate early hominid butchery systematics designed to achieve a thorough acquisition of horse products (Voormolen 2008). In order to get a better understanding of the possible hunting scenario (Thieme 2007) knowledge of wild horse behaviour is of primary interest. The exhibit section of the new center is developed to present an experience oriented concept. Access to artefacts, such as the over 300.000 year old spears, is correlated with exhibits concerning Pleistocene horse morphology, group structure and behaviour of modern day wild horses in order to draw a vivid image of the past
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Hazard, H. (2008). Horses: Companions for Life. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: The Humane Society United States (HSUS) has been partnering with several prominent researchers for over 20 years to assess the potential use of Porcine Zona Pellucida (PZP), a protein used as a fertility control vaccine for wild horses. Past studies on herds located on barrier islands of the eastern United States have demonstrated that PZP prevented pregnancies and was a valuable tool for population management. With the generous support of the Annenberg Foundation and in partnership with the Science and Conservation Center, Tufts University and The University of Toledo, HSUS is conducting a 5-year longitudinal study to assess the effectiveness of immunocontraception on over 600 wild horses in the western United States.
This project involves 2 herds of over 300 wild horses each located in Utah and Colorado. We began gathering pre treatment data in April 2008. Birth rates, band size, and individual horse identifications were recorded. In the winter of 2008/2009 both herds will be captured and all mares that are released will be treated with a 2-year-duration PZP vaccine. Both herds will be closely monitored for reproduction and behavior changes for 3 years. We will record the differences in reproductive success of treated and untreated (not captured) females.
HSUS is also seeking to develop refinements to the PZP vaccine and delivery technologies. HSUS is currently trying to improve the production of the PZP vaccine by producing it with techniques that are more efficient and less costly. Improving delivery methods for the 2 year drug is another goal of this research that may allow herd managers the flexibility of treating mares year round without having to capture it. HSUS also hopes to demonstrate that incorporating this new delivery method and proactively managing wild horse herds will assist in maintaining wild horse populations at a level that is sustainable and manageable.
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Hausberger, M., & Fureix, C. (2012). On the significance of puzzling behaviours: what do yawning and adult play tell us about horse (Equus caballus) welfare? In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Some behaviours remain a mystery and their determinants are still uncertain. Here we propose a critical interpretation of two puzzling behaviours, i.e. yawning and adult play, recorded in large samples of domestic horses kept in sub-optimal conditions (e.g. time-restricted feeding practices, social isolation). Yawning is involved in behavioural state changes, especially in quiet contexts of motor relaxation, but seems also to be triggered by stress and emotional contexts. Thus, we investigated specific correlates of yawning and stereotypic behaviours in two large samples of working horses (n1 = 87, n2 = 59). A clear co-occurrences of yawning and stereotypic behaviours appeared: stereotypic horses yawned more than the non-stereotypic horses (Fisher test, p < 0.02), yawning increased at the same time periods as stereotypic behaviours did (Wilcoxon tests, p < 0.05 to 0.001) and yawning frequency was even sometimes positively correlated with stereotypic behaviour frequencies (Spearman correlations, p < 0.005). Play, more typical of young stages in healthy individuals, occurs rarely at adult stages but then more often in captive/domestic animals (which can be challenging to welfare) than in animals living in natural conditions. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that adult play may reflect altered welfare states in horses, where, as in several species, play rarely occurs at adult stages in natural conditions. We observed the behaviour (in particular social play) of 29 adult riding school horses during occasional outings in a paddock and measured several stress indicators (health-related, behavioural and physiological) when these horses were in their home individual boxes. Results revealed that the number of horses and rates of adult play appeared very high compared to field report data and that most stress indicators measured differed between “players” and “non-players”, revealing that most “playful” animals were more prone to suffer from chronic stress contrarily to “non-playful” horses (Fisher, Chi-square, Mann-Whitney and Spearman correlation tests, p < 0.05 to 0.001). Altogether, these results show that yawning and adult play can both reflect altered welfare states in horses, highlighting that these puzzling behaviours should not be considered, as currently thought, as reliable indicators of good welfare states and / or expression of positive emotions.
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Hausberger, M. (2008). Temperament and Personality in Horses: An Overwiev. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: The existence of individual variations in behaviour has been demonstrated in all species investigated. Horses do show individual variations in a variety of behaviours from an early age on, as well as in behavioural traits underlying temperament/personality. Temperament is generally described as the “biological” (i.e.genetic) basis on which personality, as a result of environmental influences (i.e. experience), will be constructed. Indeed, genetic factors such as breed or patriline do have an influence on aspects like emotional reactions to fear-inducing situations or cognitive abilities while environmental factors, such as the conditions of life or the type of work performed, have also an influence on horse personality. We will review here the existing evidence of this interplay between genetic and environmental influences, showing that different traits can be differently influenced, and then look more thoroughly at the processes involved.
A particular accent will be given to the influence of the human-horse relation on personality traits of horses, both at adult stages through management, daily interactions and type of work, and at early stages through management and handling of foals.
The question of the stability of traits across situations and over time, that is of the possible predictibility of behavioural traits, is central, especially where the transfer from experimental situations (behavioural tests) to working situations and performance is concerned. The question of methodological approaches (behavioural tests, observations, questionnaires) can be crucial here and will be discussed.
In overall, this review should help understanding the determinants of horse temperament/personality traits and their implication in terms of choice of the appropriate horse for a given owner, better management and training for a better welfare and horse-human relationship. Genetic influences may lead to different susceptibilities to the same environmental conditions which mean that there are no such thing as “bad” or “good” horse temperaments but rather different horse types that may require different management or training schedules.
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Hampson, B. A., de Laat, M. A., Mills, P. C., & Pollitt, C. C. (2012). Distances travelled by feral horses in ‘outback’ Australia. In K. Krueger, & (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Summary Reasons for performing study: The distance travelled by Australian feral horses in an unrestricted environment has not previously been determined. It is important to investigate horse movement in wilderness environments to establish baseline data against which the movement of domestically managed horses and wild equidae can be compared. Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the travel dynamics of two groups of feral horses in unrestricted but different wilderness environments. Methods: Twelve feral horses living in two wilderness environments (2,000 km2 vs. 20,000 km2) in outback Australia were tracked for 6.5 consecutive days using custom designed, collar mounted global positioning systems (GPS). Collars were attached after darting and immobilising the horses. The collars were recovered after a minimum of 6.5 days by re-darting the horses. Average daily distance travelled was calculated. Range use and watering patterns of horses were analysed by viewing GPS tracks overlaid on satellite photographs of the study area. Results: Average distance travelled was 15.9 ± 1.9 km/day (range 8.1-28.3 km/day). Horses were recorded up to 55 km from their watering points and some horses walked for 12 hours to water from feeding grounds. Mean watering frequency was 2.67 days (range 1 – 4 days). Central Australian horses watered less frequently and showed a different range use compared to horses from central Queensland. Central Australian horses walked for long distances in direct lines to patchy food sources whereas central Queensland horses were able to graze close to water sources and moved in a more or less circular pattern around the central water source. Conclusions: The distances travelled by feral horses were far greater than those previously observed for managed domestic horses and other species of equidae. Feral horses are able to travel long distances and withstand long periods without water allowing them to survive in semi-arid conditions.
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Hampson, B. (2012). The effect of a novel dynamic feeding system on horse behavior and movement. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Horses kept in small enclosures move very little in comparison to horses living in an unconfined environment. There are health consequences of this sedentary lifestyle. The use of GPS allows the accurate quantification of distance travelled by horses. Methods: Ten horses (5 pairs) were alternated between a control paddock and a research paddock, both measuring 20 x 30m. Grass hay was fed from a novel feeding system in the research paddock, while the same hay was fed from a standard hay feeder in the control paddock. In the research paddock access to hay was alternated at 5 min intervals between either side of a fence, forcing horses to walk around a walkway to access feed continuously. The interactive behavior of horses was observed and movement was monitored using GPS. Results: All 10 horses learnt to use the feeding system quickly. Dominance behavior in some horses was modified by competition for feed. On average, horses in the research paddock travelled 5.4 times more distance than in the control paddock. Conclusion: The dynamic feeding system was successful in encouraging horses to exercise in a small paddock. However, due to the exaggeration of dominance behavior in some horses, horses should be well matched if housed in pairs. This system may have application in the management of equine obesity and insulin resistance in horses. KW -
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Hall, C., Rigg, V., Truswell, M., & Owen, H. (2012). Picture recognition of con-specifics and facial expression in the horse (Equus caballus). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The management of the domestic horse often requires them to be kept in isolation from con-specifics. Installing a picture of a horse (generally head and neck view) with a view to providing surrogate companionship has been shown to reduce the negative impact of this isolation. This study aimed firstly to compare the spontaneous response of horses (N=10) to a 2-D image of a horse’s face (FP) with their response to a comparable abstract 2-D image (AP). Secondly, the spontaneous response of horses (N=20) to a 2-D image of a horse’s face with the ears forward (PFP positive) was compared with the response to a 2-D image of a horse’s face with the ears back (NFP negative). The posters were A1 sized and displayed in the horse’s own stable. In study 1, one poster was displayed for 5 minutes and the horse’s behaviour video-recorded. This was removed and the second poster was displayed for 5 minutes and the behaviour video-recorded. FP was displayed first for 5 of the horses and AP displayed first for the other 5. The video footage was observed and the behaviour of the horses and number of times they touched the poster recorded. For the purpose of identifying the area of the poster that was touched by the horse it was divided into 4 equal quarters (TL, TR, BL, BR). In FP the nose of the horse in the 2-D image was located in BL, eyes and ears in TL, chest and lower neck in BR and upper neck in TR. In AP each area contained similar but unique abstract patterns of comparable colour to FP. Differences in behaviour were found according to which poster was displayed. FP was touched significantly more than AP (p=0.001) and was looked at more often (p=0.008). With FP the horses spent significantly longer with their ears forward (p=0.008) and licking and chewing (p=0.016). When the number of touches per poster area was compared (FP and AP) a significant difference was found in the number of times that BL (nose) and BR (chest/lower neck) were touched (p=0.011). Both areas were touched more frequently on FP, with BL being touched the most. In study 2 the same experimental protocol was used to compare responses to positive (PFP) or negative (NFP) 2-D images of a horse’s face (same horse in both PFP and NFP). Again, differences in behaviour were found in response to the two posters. PFP was touched significantly more than NFP (p=0.002) and on both posters the area BL (nose) was touched more frequently than the other areas (PFP: p=0.02, NFP: p=0.01). More ears back behaviour (p<0.001) and more ear locked on behaviour (p=0.008) was shown with NFP. The results of these studies indicate that horses can recognize 2-D images as con-specifics as well as responding to differences in facial expression. There is now the potential for further investigation into the importance of other visual cues in recognition and social interaction as well as the application of findings to enhance equine welfare.
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