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Pick, D., & Krueger, K. (2012). Heuristics and complex decisions in man and horses. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Darwin’s claim of differences in mental abilities between man and other animals is a matter of degree rather than of kind and appears to apply nicely to a comparison of choice behaviour in humans and equine. Humans and horses make two kinds of decisions, fast reflexive decisions based on heuristics, and slower more considered decisions that require more complex cognitive processing. Heuristic use is adaptive in that decisions based on them are most often useful in helping an organism to survive while requiring little time and cognitive effort. There is considerable evidence that there is an innate basis to many heuristics in humans as well as horses. A case will be made that the investigation of heuristics specific to horses will lead to an understanding of equine behaviour that has not been possible using traditional learning theories alone. Traditional learning theories are restricted in explaining behaviour to appeals to reinforcement regimes or to the formation of associations between novel stimuli and stimuli that cause innate reflexes, but they are of no use when behaviour is controlled by stimuli that have never been reinforced or been systematically paired with other stimuli that cause reflexive responses. For example, a horse in a two-choice discrimination task may choose a familiar stimulus which has never been reinforced over a new stimulus added to the discrimination task, simply due to the use of an heuristic that usually works -- when in doubt, choose a more familiar object over an unfamiliar one. Conflict resolution strategies provide another good example of heuristic vs. slow decision making. In both humans and horses, conflict resolution strategies are used within, but not typically between social groups. Such groups can be defined as community of interest. Depending on the resource that has to be defended, groups may well be small identities, such as human families or horse harems, or large aggregations such as herds in horses, or religious groups or nations in humans. Fast and simple resolution is possible with stable social identities in simple environments, but more complicated and time consuming deliberative processes are required to resolve conflict over long-term resource acquisition, for decisions in complex conflicts situations and complex social settings.
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Pick, D. K., B., & Steciuch, C. (2015). The Familiarity Heuristic in the Horse (Equus caballus). In , & K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: This study replicated an unreported finding observed in a color perception experiment (Pick, Lovell, Brown, & Dail, 1994) where, after using the method of successive approximations to train a blue-gray discrimination, red-gray trials were initiated without further training. Although a gray choice had never been reinforced, the subject chose gray on the first 20 trials (p < .000001). In the study reported here, a horse was trained to approach a red feed bucket and not a green feed bucket. After the subject mastered the discrimination, a blue bucket was substituted for the previously reinforced red bucket. With double-blind controls in place, the subject chose the unreinforced green bucket on 15 out of the first 20 blue-green trials yielding a binomial p = 0.0148 that this outcome could be due to chance alone. These results are contrary to all behavioristic psychological learning theories, but consistent with prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). Prospect theory predicts that given a choice between two previously unreinforced stimuli, one familiar and the other novel, humans will choose the familiar. It is argued that the bias toward the familiar is the basis to a heuristic that has a genetic origin and should exist in other animals on the phylogenetic scale. The results of this study indicate that the heuristic is available at least as far down the scale as the horse. Conceptual replications using shape stimuli and sound stimuli are in progress.
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Palme, R. (2015). Non-invasive monitoring of stress hormones for welfare assessment in domestic and wild equids. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg, in prep. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Stress responses play an important role in allowing animals to cope with challenges. Glucocorticoids, key elements in the neuroendocrine stress axis, are traditionally measured as a parameter for welfare assessment. As blood sample collection itself disturbs an animal, non-invasive or minimal invasive methods have gained importance for assessing stress. In horses saliva and faeces are most frequently used. Faecal samples offer the advantage that they can be collected easily and stress-free. In faecal samples circulating hormone levels are integrated over a certain period of time. As a consequence faecal glucocorticoid metabolites represent the cumulative secretion and they are less affected by short episodic fluctuations of hormone secretion.
However, in order to gain reliable information about an animal’s adrenocortical activity, certain criteria have to be met: Depending whether the impact of acute or chronic stressors is assessed, frequent sampling might be necessary whereas in other cases, single samples will suffice. Background knowledge regarding the metabolism and excretion of glucocorticoids is essential and a careful validation is obligatory. In addition, this presentation will address analytical issues regarding sample storage, extraction procedures, and immunoassays and various examples of a successful application in equids will be given. Applied properly, non-invasive techniques to monitor stress hormones are a useful tool for animal welfare assessment. |
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Owen, H., Hall, C., Hallam, S., & Smith, E. (2012). The use of GPS to measure feeding behaviour and activity patterns in the horse (Equus caballus). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The global positioning system (GPS) has been used to record activity and monitor habitat use in many animal species. In the horse (Equus caballus) the monitoring of activity and feeding patterns has been used to assess the impact of environmental factors on behaviour and welfare. In free-ranging animals GPS can provide such information but the accuracy and reliability of these devices has yet to be confirmed. The aim of this study was: 1) to compare the results of visual observation with GPS recordings of the horse’s head and neck position (head up (HU) and down (HD)) used to quantify time spent grazing; 2) to test the use of GPS collars to monitor activity patterns where distance, speed and location paths were recorded. In both studies two animals were fitted with Lotek GPS 3300S collars (with integrated GPS data logger and removable battery pack) round the top of the neck. In study 1 two horses were fitted with collars and turned loose into a 20x40m sand arena for 45 minutes. Feed balls and hay were provided (in nets and on the ground) to encourage movement and feeding behaviour for comparison using the two methods (observation from digital video recordings and GPS). HD was recorded by the GPS collars for a significantly longer time (interpreted as feeding/grazing time) than that recorded by observation (p=0.004). However when the visual observation was split into HU, HD and also head in mid-way position (HMW), where the nose of the horse was level or just above the chest, then no difference between the collar (HU and HD) and visual observation for (HU and HD+HMW) was found. It is likely that when in HMW the GPS collar may not be sufficiently angled to trigger the sensor to record HU or the collar may move on the neck. Conclusions relating to time spent feeding should be treated with caution. In study 2, the collars were fitted to two ponies with access to 2.02 hectares of lowland grazing. Activity (distance travelled and speed) and location was recorded for 2 days. The total distance travelled by the ponies in 24 hours (2.84km) and their average speed (4.04m/minute) was calculated and showed no significant difference between day and night. The total area was split into four equal segments and there was no significant difference in the time the ponies spent in each area although they were found to move at slower speeds and stand for longer in some areas. Movement paths could be identified by inputting the GPS collar data into ArcGIS and viewed on Google Maps. There was a high level of comparability observed between the two ponies confirming behavioural synchronicity. As in other species, the use of GPS collars to monitor the movement and location of horses/ponies was found to be effective, but data relating to head position did not provide a reliable means of recording the time spent feeding.
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Ödberg, F. (2012). History of schooling and its relation with conditioning laws and welfare. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: While writings from the Hittite Kikkuli and the Greek hippiatrica concerned stamina training and mainly veterinary aspects, the first explicit writings left about schooling are from the hand of Xenophon. He showed already a plight to understand the horse’s behaviour and apply an animal-friendly schooling. What happened in Roman times and early middle ages is unclear through a lack of documents. Literature increased in late middle ages (a few Iberic authors and the Italian Rusius) but remained scarce. One presumes knights were brutal because of the strength of bits and spurs, but iconography shows also horses ridden without coercion. Linear progress in schooling cannot be found before the transition between the renaissance and baroque periods. Writings from renaissance masters such as Grisone, Fiaschi, Pignatelli and de la Broue, show a generally violent way of schooling (excepted Conte and Pavari) strangely contrasting with appeals for kindness. One then observes from the 17th century authors to the 18th century baroque masters a gradual improvement concerning important aspects: evolving 1/ from anthropomorphism to understanding horse behaviour, and 2/ from coercion to obtaining gradually suppleness and applying the laws of physics concerning weight distribution. Many baroque and early 19th century masters had understood intuitively conditioning laws discovered scientifically in the 20th century by the Pavlovians and behaviourists. The essence of schooling was settled in the baroque period. It subsided unfortunately in the 19th (with better survival in Germany, Austria and Iberic countries) because of a/ more interest for racing and hunting, b/ the French revolution that closed academies and c/ mass army training. Pressure of competition in the 20th nearly eradicated academic tradition. In the second part we translate some fundamental riding principles into scientific terminology. “Independence of aids” is based on discrimination of stimuli and overshadowing. “Discretion of aids” on generalization and second-order conditioning. “Descente de mains et de jambes” on avoidance of habituation, of confusion, and of the impossibility to apply negative reward. “Legs without hands, hands without legs” on avoidance of experimental neurosis due to contradictory stimuli. Time permitting, processes such as positive social modelling and occasion setting will be explained. The above mentioned principles are rarely applied nowadays. The FEI holds a large responsibility in the acceptance, even institutionalizing, of a probably animal-unfriendly riding. It is also shameful that some schools, that for years, or even centuries, were the guardians of old principles, are relinquishing them under commercial pressure. All too often, modern riding is obviously animal-unfriendly for the intuitive rider. Scientists however seek facts. Frequency of conflict behaviours is an indicator at ethological level. However, some horses could be in learned helplessness. There is no litmus test for that (except complicated avoidance learning procedures). There is a need for physiological stress parameters according to breed, age, sex. Horses schooled according to different philosophies are often from different breeds making matched-pairs studies difficult. The important role of pre- and postnatal experience complicates precise scientific evaluation in everyday equine practice. One cannot standardize ontogeny in horses as in laboratory animals. Keywords: academic riding principles, history, learning theory, welfare KW -
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Novotný, F., Noskovič, ová, J., Valocký, I., Pošivák, J., Boldižár, M., et al. (2012). Differences of biochemical and haematological indices in the aging process in cold-blooded horses Norik Muráň type. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The aim of was to compare of biochemical and haematological parameters in the aging process in a cold-blooded mares breed Norik Muráň type. 27 of breeding mares Norik Muráň type without pathological symptoms in horse breeding farm in Dobšiná (Slovakia) were used in this study. Mares were divided by age into four groups: A (n = 7, 5-8 years), B (n = 6, 9-15), C (n = 7, 16-20) and D (n = 7, 21-23). Blood samples were collected from v. jugularis externa by needles (Vacutainer ® Precision Glide ™, BD Diagnostics, USA) in serum tubes (Serum-SST TM II Advance, BD Diagnostics, USA) in the morning hours, kept at 8 to 10 °C and analyzed as soon as possible. Biochemical parameters of blood serum like aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine (CREA), urea (Urea), albumin (ALB) and glucose (Glu) were analyzed using biochemical analyzer Cobas c 111 (Roche, Switzerland). Reference values were determined by Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry and Haematology (UVMF, Košice). Were used a same nutrition for all mares. The results were statistically processed using Student\'s t-test. The concentrations of AST decreased in mares with aging (A=5.69 ± 1.13 μkat/l; B=5.36 ± 0.9 μkat/l; C=5.13 ± 1.1 μkat/l), but in the oldest mares (D=5.88 ± 1.37 μkat/l). were higher than the youngest age group A. Were found no significant differences between groups (P> 0,05). The concentrations of ALP increased with age (A=2.47 ± 0.3 μkat/l; C=2.66 ± 0.43 μkat/l; D=2.77 ± 1.17 μkat/l), but in the middle age mares were found (B= 2;44 ± 0.46 μkat/l) (P> 0,05). Crea concentrations had a decreasing trend (A=139.1 ± 37.49 μmol/l; B=118.45 ± 23.18 μmol/l; C=119.31 ± 19.85 μmol/l; D=111.59 ± 21.08 μmol/l) (P> 0,05). Urea increased with age (A=7.88 ± 2.04 mmol/l, B= 7.97 ± 0.8 mmol/l, D= 8.29 ± 1.23 mmol/l) except C (7.76 ± 0.85 mmol/l) (P> 0,05). ALB decreased with age (A=31.34 ± 3.24 g/l; B=30.03 ± 2.41 g/l; C=30±2.77 g/l; D=29.67± 2.85 g/l) (P> 0,05). Also glucose concentrations were lower in older mares (A=4.51 ± 0.99 mmol/l; B=4.69 ± 1.05 mmol/l; C= 4.69 ± 1.05 mmol/l; D =4.03 ± 0.64 mmol/l) (P> 0,05). Significantly differences were found in leukocytes between group A =2,76±1,82 g/l versus groups B=6,74±0,56 g/l, C =6,46±1,14 g/l and D =6,13±1,61 g/l (P<0.05), also in neutrophiles between A=2,06±1,26 109/l versus B= 3,47±1,17 109/l, C =3,12±0,9 109/l and D =2,88±0,71 109/l (P<0.05). Were found significantly differences in eosinophiles between group A =0,06±0,09 109/l versus groups B=0,21±0,17 109/l, C=0,19±0,1 109/l and D=0,12±0,11 109/l (P<0.05), also in lymphocytes between A=4,59±1,59109/l versus B =2,95±1,04109/l, C=2,99±1,14109/l and D=2,65±1,87109/l (P<0.05). This research evaluated selected biochemical and haematological parameters of breed mares Norik Muráň type of different ages. We found that age affects these indices in mares Norik Muráň type. Data from this study may enhance our understanding of the biochemical parameters in this species, allowing a veterinarian to fix the interpretation of laboratory data and give these animals the appropriate care. This study was supported by grant from the Ministry of Education VEGA 1/0498/12 of the Slovak Republic.
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Nagy, K., Bodó, G., Bárdos, G., & Harnos, A. (2008). Is modified Forssell"s operation superior to cribbing collar in preventing crib-biting in horses? In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Crib-biting (wind-sucking) might be a coping response of the horses to the challenges of
uncontrolled environmental events. Prevention of this stereotypic behaviour evokes physiological responses consistent with increased stress. Reducing the incidence of cribbiting, however, is important in order to prevent undesirable physical and behavioural consequences (tooth erosion, altered gut function, gastric inflammation/ulceration, colic, etc.). Common treatment of crib-biting is the application of a cribbing collar, which limits the flexion of the neck making this stereotypic movement uncomfortable and difficult. Another method, the modified Forssell"s operation, is becoming more and more popular amongst the horse owners. It is based on the removal of the muscles used in crib-biting (m.omohyoideus, m.sternohyoideus, m.sternothyrohyoideus) and the ventral branches of the spinal accessory nerves. Surveys on the success of this surgical procedure have revealed inconsistent results, and, contrary to the cribbing collar, its effect on the stress level have not been studied either. The aim of our study was to determine whether the modified Forssell"s procedure is superior to the cribbing collar treatment. Differences in stress management was tested by a crib-biting provoking test, in which surgically treated horses, crib-biting horses, crib-biting horses with cribbing collar, and normal horses (those showing no stereotypies), altogether 56 horses were compared. In this test, a food bucket had been placed out of the reach of the animal, from which titbits were given 3 times. Behaviour and heart rate variability (HRV) of the horses were recorded and analysed throughout the test. Hypotheses were tested by linear mixed model. According to our results, both prevention methods (collar or surgery) inhibited crib-biting successfully though not totally. Regarding behaviour and heart rate variability, horses prevented from crib-biting (by collar or surgery) differed significantly from crib-biting and normal horses but not from each other. Normal horses were usually trying to reach the food-bucket while present and were standing still afterwards, whereas the other three groups had not really made efforts to reach the bucket, spent less time with resting, and performed or tried crib-biting. During the stress-test, normal and crib-biting horses had shown good stress-adaptation to the challenge since their HRV, after an initial increase, returned to the basal value by the end. On the contrary, HRV of the two prevented groups remained elevated and showed large oscillations throughout. They had not found a successful coping behaviour either. Our results suggest that since prevention may significantly increase distress, the treatment in itself, without changing the motivation of the horse to perform the replacement behaviour – it seems to be unsatisfactory and insufficient. After prevention the motivation of the horse to perform crib-biting should be addressed. In addition, considering that prevention by collar and surgery had not resulted in any significant behavioural or physiological differences, the superiority of the modified Forssell"s procedure might be questioned. However, the surgery might be recommended if treatment with collar is ineffective. |
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Mshelia, W. P., Abdussamad, A. M., Onoja, I. I., Victoria, S.Q., & Richard, E. E. (2012). Husbandry and Management Practices in Domestic horses in Northern Nigeria and their Clinical Implications. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: This study was conducted to identify common husbandry and management practices associated with domestic horses in Northern Nigeria. Fifty (50) of the horse was purposely selected as units of analysis. Primary data was generated by means of a pre-tested, semi-structured questionnaire administered to the sampled respondents. A simple inductive statistics was applied to the primary data. The study revealed that the whole facilities studied 50(100%) had a prior experience with horses. A large number of horses, mostly West African Dongola and West African Barb are kept solely for pleasure or ceremonial purposes (60%). While the other breeds of horses like Argentine (6%) and South Africa polo ponies (2%) are kept for polo. Recently, the Sudan country-bred (4%) and Western Sudan pony (6%) have found a place in West African polo. Other breeds found within the facilities studied are Argentine criollo; Nigerian ponies and various crosses. Only 10% of the facilities had breeding stocks with only 2% carrying out artificial insemination while 8% do natural mating. The housing management system includes stables (40%) and open fields (60%) where horses are tethered. Bedding materials includes straws (50%); sand (20%) and wood shavings (30%). Feed grade provided include a combination of rations-bran; cracked grain and hay (40%), Bran; cracked grain and legumes (48%) and Bran and hay (12%), all feed combination administered along with fresh grass. Watering and feeding practices involves provision of feed and water twice daily (50%) and while others provide it adlib (25%). Feeding horses with various additives accounted for 19% of the studied facilities. The health status as shown by the body condition score ranges from II-IV/V (88%) of the population studied. Routine dental care is regular (30%) with all the facilities while others (70%) are not irregular. Grooming is common in all the facilities especially within the performance horse circle. Routine hoof care including trimming and shoeing is common in 26% of the facilities while hoof trimming without shoeing is a common practice in 74% of the facilities. Orthodox medicine practiced in 80% of the studied area. While ethnoveterinary consist of 10%, while a combination of orthodox and ethnoveterinary medicine was common in 10% of the study area. Vaccination against African horse sickness equine influenza and tetanus is common in the various equine communities.Though 16% of the population do not vaccinate against any known disease. Parasite control program include pasture hygiene (4%); interval dosing (10%); continuous in-feed (4%); selective dosing (40%) and strategic dosing constitute 42%. Exercise is a common practice but intensity and duration is not strictly adhered to especially during tendon injuries. Manure management differs from facility to facility- some dispose manure within the facilities (40%) while others dispose it outside the facilities (60%). A number of clinical signs like limping, coughing, ocular and nasal discharge, swellings on the body, abnormal mucous membrane, fever, ventral oedema and reluctance to move, foul respiratory odour was observed. Clinical cases like laminitis; pigeon fever; bran disease; colic; African horse sickness; exertional rhabdomyolysis; sinusitis; piroplasmosis; dermatomycosis and tumours was observed. KW -
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Mezei, A., Posta, J., & Mihók, S. (2012). Analysis of eventing competition results of Hungarian Sporthorses. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The aim of the study was to evaluate the Hungarian Sporthorse population based on eventing competition performance. The database contained the results of 792 horses and 449 riders between 1996 and 2006. The eventing results were gathered from Hungary and other European countries. Blom transformed ranks were used to measure competition performance. Sporthorses competed in fourteen categories but only the easiest category (category ’A’) contained enough result to handle it as a single category (model I.). The other 13 categories were handled together based on professional reasons in a different model (model II.). In model III., all records were analysed together and the results were weighted according to the difficulty of the category. The competition results were classified into eight groups, each group had a weight (0-7) and it was multiplied by a constant 3, and the result of this formula was added to the original Blom score. The linear mixed models included fixed effects for age, sex, breeder, owner, location, year and random effects for animal and rider. The model II. contained one more fix effect for difficulty of the competition level. The distribution of number of horses and number of starts by sex were heterogeneous (P<0.05). For category ’A’ mares and geldings appeared in higher proportion, despite this fact ratio of stallions is greater in higher competition levels. Considering the goodness of fit in each model, model fitting to the weighted Blom scores was the best R2=0.82. In model III. every fix effects (age, sex, breeder, owner, location, year) were significant. Random effects for animal and rider were not significant, but form professional point of view they need to be included in the model. The variance components estimated for the weighted Blom scores were the highest also (0.52 rider effect, 0.09 animal effect), the animal x rider interaction effect was zero. The variance proportion of rider effect exceeded the variance proportion of animal effect in each model. Breeding values of eventing performance were predicted using model III. The reliability of the estimated breeding values was acceptable for only a few stallions. To improve the reliability of breeding values, more progenies should be used in eventing competitions (as a kind of progeny test) and more competition records needed (as a kind of own performance test).
Keywords: Sport horse, eventing, model comparison
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Medill, S. A., Janz, D. M., & McLoughlin, P. D. (2015). Hair testosterone and cortisol concentrations and their relationships to physiological and social status in feral horses (Equus ferus caballus). In Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting.
Abstract: Determining steroid hormone concentrations in hair has been frequently performed in humans, and increasingly in wildlife and domestic animals. Hair hormone concentrations may provide insight on how individuals are responding to their physiological condition or social situation. Cortisol is most frequently measured in hair as a biomarker of long-term stress, while testosterone may be linked with reproductive status in males. These hormones are commonly measured in substances that reflect either current (e.g. blood) or very recent (e.g. saliva, urine, feces) circulating levels. However, these hormones are also incorporated into hair during hair growth and provide a chronological record of circulating hormone levels. Thus, analysis of steroid hormones in hair provides a much longer representation of an animal’s endocrine status than other tissues frequently targeted for non-invasive monitoring.
The feral horse (Equus ferus caballus) population on Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada, has been annually censused during the mid-late summer since 2008 to track individual life histories and population dynamics. We collected tail hair (n = 144 females, n = 162 males) from known individuals either opportunistically or from natural or artificial snags to investigate how hair cortisol and testosterone might be associated with physiological state (e.g. lactating vs. non-lactating, body condition, age), as well as their social situation (e.g. dominant band stallion, subordinate band stallion, or bachelor) and measures of sociality. The proximal 5 cm of hair (excluding first 4mm or root region) were ground to a fine powder and hormones extracted with methanol and analyzed by using enzyme-linked immunoassay. Preliminary analyses of the data showed a general sex based difference in hair cortisol concentrations (females lower than males; t = 3.16, df = 317, P=0.002). Among females, the presence of nursing foals was accompanied by an increase in hair cortisol (z = 2.93, df =140, P = 0.003); however, no significant difference was found in hair cortisol concentrations based on sex of the foal (t = -0.06, df = 82, P = 0.95). Horses in poor body condition tended to have higher hair cortisol than those in good or excellent condition (slope= -0.203, df = 312, P = 0.003). We also observed an increased concentration of hair cortisol as horses increased in age from 3-6 or entered into reproductive maturity. Adult male dominant band stallions did not have significantly less cortisol than bachelors or subordinate stallions but these three groups were significantly greater than young males (aged 3 and 4) who generally do not challenge the older males for reproductive opportunities. Additionally, we looked at hair testosterone concentrations for n=46 males. Testosterone is known to influence traits and behaviours that enhance sexual selection. Often there is an inverse relationship between cortisol levels and testosterone; in particular, being able to maintain high testosterone and not have elevated cortisol related to the metabolic costs of sexual trait production ensures that traits or behaviours honestly signal the quality of the individual. For this reason we’d expect to see band stallions (those males in a position to mate) have a lower value in the ratio Cortisol: Testosterone. Early indications suggest we see this phenomenon in feral horses. As a relatively new approach in wildlife research, the use of hair hormone analysis shows promise in contributing to our understanding of physiological aspects of sexual selection and other processes. Additionally, hair hormone analysis may have applications in advancing knowledge of animal husbandry and in particular, welfare. |