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Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Varieties of altruism in children and chimpanzees. In Trends in cognitive sciences (Vol. 13, pp. 397–402). Elsevier Science,.
Abstract: Recent empirical research has shed new light on the perennial question of human altruism. A number of recent studies suggest that from very early in ontogeny young children have a biological predisposition to help others achieve their goals, to share resources with others and to inform others of things helpfully. Humans nearest primate relatives, such as chimpanzees, engage in some but not all of these behaviors: they help others instrumentally, but they are not so inclined to share resources altruistically and they do not inform others of things helpfully. The evolutionary roots of human altruism thus appear to be much more complex than previously supposed.
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Krueger., K., & Farmer, K. (2018). Social learning in Horses: Differs from individual learning only in the learning stimulus and not in the learning mechanisms. In 14th Meeting of the Internatinoal Society for Equitation Science.
Abstract: Equine welfare can be enhanced by applying species specific training. This may incorporate social learning, as horses are highly social and social stimuli are of primary importance. Social learning is comparable to individual learning in its learning mechanisms, differing primarily in the way it is stimulated. Our initial study showed that horses of different breeds (N = 38) follow humans after observing other horses doing so, but only if the observed horse was familiar to and higher ranking than the observer (Fisher's exact test: N = 12, P = 0.003). A second study showed that horses and ponies (N = 25) learned to pull a rope to open a feeding apparatus after observing demonstrations by conspecifics, again, only if the demonstrating horse was older and higher ranking than the observer (Fisher's combination test, N = 3, v2 = 27.71, p = 0.006). Our third approach showed that horses and ponies (N = 24) learned to press a switch to open a feeding apparatus after observing a familiar person (GzLM: N = 24, z = 2.33, P = 0.02). Most recently, we confronted horses and ponies (N = 50) with persons demonstrating different techniques for opening a feeding apparatus. In this study we investigated whether the horses would copy the demonstrators' techniques or apply their own. Here only some horses copied the technique, and most of the successful learners used their mouths irrespective of the demonstrators' postures (Chi Square Test: N = 40, df = 2, χ2 = 31.4, p < 0.001). In all the approaches social stimuli elicited learning processes in the test horses, while only a few individuals in the control groups mastered the tasks by individual learning. The following behaviour observed in the initial study may have been facilitated by a social stimuli (social facilitation), and the opening of the feed boxes in the subsequent studies appear to be mostly the result of enhancement (social enhancement). Some horses may have used the social stimuli at first and continued their learning process by individual trial and error. However, the horses were also selective in whom and some in how to copy. This may have been conditioned (socially conditioned) or the result of simple forms of reasoning on the reliability of the particular information provided by demonstrators of certain social ranks or social positions, as high ranking and familiar horses and familiar persons were copied and some imitated exactly.
Lay person message: Traditional riding instructions suggest that horses learn by observing other horses. For example, older, more experienced driving horses are used for initial training of young driving horses. We have shown that horses indeed use learning stimuli provided by other horse, as well as by humans. Horses readily accept stimuli observed in high ranking and familiar horses, and familiar persons. Such stimuli elicit learning processes which are comparable to individual learning. We suggest applying social learning whenever possible, as it is much faster and less stressful than individual learning, where learners experience negative outcomes in trial and error learning.
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Christensen, J. W., Ahrendt, L. P., Lintrup, R., Gaillard, C., Palme, R., & Malmkvist, J. (2012). Does learning performance in horses relate to fearfulness, baseline stress hormone, and social rank? In Applied Animal Behaviour Science (Vol. 140, pp. 44–52).
Abstract: The ability of horses to learn and remember new tasks is fundamentally important for their use by humans. Fearfulness may, however, interfere with learning, because stimuli in the environment can overshadow signals from the rider or handler. In addition, prolonged high levels of stress hormones can affect neurons within the hippocampus; a brain region central to learning and memory. In a series of experiments, we aimed to investigate the link between performance in two learning tests, the baseline level of stress hormones, measured as faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM), fearfulness, and social rank. Twenty-five geldings (2 or 3 years old) pastured in one group were included in the study. The learning tests were performed by professional trainers and included a number of predefined stages during which the horses were gradually trained to perform exercises, using either negative (NR) or positive reinforcement (PR). Each of the learning tests lasted 3 days; 7min/horse/day. The NR test was repeated in a novel environment. Performance, measured as final stage in the training programme, and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Faeces were collected on four separate days where the horses had been undisturbed at pasture for 48h. Social rank was determined through observations of social interactions during feeding. The fear test was a novel object test during which behaviour and HR were recorded. Performance in the NR and PR learning tests did not correlate. In the NR test, there was a significant, negative correlation between performance and HR in the novel environment (rS=-0.66, P<0.001, i.e. nervous horses had reduced performance), whereas there was no such correlation in the home environment (both NR and PR). Behavioural reactions in the fear test correlated significantly with performance in the NR test in the novel environment (e.g. object alertness and final stage: rS=-0.43, P=0.04), suggesting that performance under unfamiliar, stressful conditions may be predicted by behavioural responses in a fear test. There was a negative correlation between social rank and baseline stress hormones (rS=-0.43, P=0.04), i.e. high rank corresponded to low FCM concentrations, whereas neither rank nor FCM correlated with fearfulness or learning performance. We conclude that performance under stressful conditions is affected by activation of the sympathetic nervous system during training and related to behavioural responses in a standardised fear test. Learning performance in the home environment, however, appears unrelated to fearfulness, social rank and baseline FCM levels.
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Ahrendt, L. P., Christensen, J. W., & Ladewig, J. (2012). The ability of horses to learn an instrumental task through social observation. In Applied Animal Behaviour Science (Vol. 139, pp. 105–113).
Abstract: The ability of horses to learn through social observation may ease the implementation of new management systems, because the use of automatic feeders etc. by naive horses could be facilitated by observation of experienced horses. However, previous studies found no documentation for observational learning abilities in horses. This study aimed to investigate the ability of horses to learn an instrumental task from a familiar conspecific when social interaction was allowed during the demonstration. Two similar experiments were performed. In the first experiment, Observer horses (n=11) participated in ten successive demonstrations, where a trained Demonstrator opened an operant device by pushing a sliding lid aside with the muzzle in order to obtain a food reward. Immediately after the demonstrations the Observer horses were given the opportunity to operate the device alone. Control horses (n=11) were aware that the device contained food but were presented to the operant device without demonstration of the task. The learning criterion was at least two openings. Accomplishment of and latency to accomplish the learning criterion, and investigative behaviour towards the operant device were recorded. Five Observers and one Control, out of the eleven horses in each treatment group, accomplished the learning criterion. Even though this presents a high odds ratio (OR) in favour of the Observer treatment (OR=7.6), there was no significant difference between the treatment groups (P=0.15). Analysis of investigative behaviour showed, however, that the demonstrations increased the motivation of the Observer horses to investigate the device. Subsequently, a similar experiment was performed in a practical setting with 44 test horses (mixed age, gender and breed). We used the same operant device and the same number and type of demonstrations, although the horses were held on a loose rope to minimise aggression. In this second experiment, six of 23 Observer horses and five of 21 Control horses learned the instrumental task, representing no influence of the demonstration. Thus, this study did not demonstrate an ability of horses to learn an instrumental task through observation.
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Nathan J. Emery. (2005). The Evolution of Social Cognition. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Social BehaviourGarten. Psychology Press.
Abstract: Although this bookis focusedon the cognitive neuroscience ofhuman social behaviour, an
understandingofsocial cognition in non-human animals is critical for unravellingthe neural basis of
social cognition in humans as well as the selective pressures that have shapedthe evolution ofcomplex
social cognition. Thanks to methodological limitations, we know little about the relationships between
certain biochemical andelectrophysiological properties ofthe human brain andhow theycompute the
behaviour andmental states ofother individuals. Traditional techniques for examiningneural function
in humans, such as event-relatedpotentials (ERP),positron emission tomography(PET),and
functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI),are constrainedbythe fact that subjects are placed
either into an immoveable scanner with a lot ofbackgroundnoise or wiredup with dozens of
electrodes that are sensitive to slight movements. The possibilityofscanningor recordingbrain waves
from two individuals that are physicallyinteractingsociallyis technicallyimpossible at present
(however, see Montague et al, 2002 for a new methodfor simultaneouslyscanningtwo individuals
interactingvia a computer).
The onlywayto understandthe neurocognitive architecture ofhuman social behaviour is to examine
similar social processes in both human andnon-human animal minds andmake comparisons at the
species level. An additional argument is that traditional human socio-cognitive tasks are dependent on
the use ofstories, cartoons andverbal cues andinstructions (Heberlein & Adolphs, this volume)which
themselves will elicit specific neural responses that have to be eliminatedfrom neural responses
specificallyrelatedto mindreading. Therefore, the development ofnon-verbal tasks wouldprovide a
breakthrough for studies in non-linguistic animals, pre-verbal human infants andhuman cognitive
neuroimaging.
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Linklater, W. L., Cameron, E. Z., Stafford, K. J., & Minot, E. O. Estimating Kaimanawa feral horse population size and growth. In SCIENCE & RESEARCH INTERNAL REPORT 185.
Abstract: Animal flight behaviour in response to aircraft could have a profound influence
on the accuracy and precision of aerial estimates of population size but is rarely
investigated. Using independent observers on the ground and in the air we
recorded the presence and behaviour of 17 groups, including 136 individually
marked horses, during a helicopter count in New Zealand’s Kaimanawa
Mountains. We also compared the helicopter count with ground-based
estimates using mark-resight and line-transect methods in areas ranging from
20.5 to 176 km2. Helicopter counts were from 16% smaller to 54% larger than
ground-based estimates. The helicopter induced a flight response in all horse
groups monitored. During flight, horse groups traveled from 0.1 up to 2.75 km
before leaving the ground observer’s view and temporarily changed in size and
composition. A tenth of the horses were not counted and a quarter counted
twice. A further 23 (17%) may have been counted twice but only two of the
three observers’ records concurred. Thus, the helicopter count over-estimated
the marked sub-population by at least 15% and possibly by up to 32%. The net
over-estimate of the marked sub-population corresponded to the 17% and 13%
difference between helicopter counts and ground-based estimates in the central
study area and for the largest area sampled, respectively. Feral horse flight
behaviour should be considered when designing methods for population
monitoring using aircraft. We identify the characteristics of the helicopter
count that motivated horse flight behaviour. We compared our own recent
estimate of population growth from measures of fecundity and mortality (λ =
1.096 with an earlier-published one (λ = 1.182, where r = 0.167) that had been
derived by interpolating between the available history of single counts. Our
model of population growth, standardised aerial counts, and historical estimates
of annual reproduction suggest that the historical sequence of counts since
1979 probably over-estimated growth because count techniques improved and
greater effort was expended in successive counts. We used line-transect, markresight
and dung density sampling methods for population monitoring and
discuss their advantages and limitations over helicopter counts.
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Krueger, K. (2015). Social learning and innovative behaviour in horses. In Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The evaluation of important parameters for measuring the horses’ cognitive capacities is one of the central topics of the equine behaviour team at Nürtingen-Geislingen University. Social complexity has been said to be one of the settings in which needs for cognitive capacities arise in animals. A variety of studies throughout the last two decades proved the horses’ social complexity to be far more elaborate than previously assumed. Horses form social bonds for the protection of offspring, intervene in encounters of others, identify group mates individually and easily orientate in a fission fusion society.
In such socially complex societies, animals will benefit from learning socially. In many bird and primate species the degree of social complexity correlates nicely with the species abilities for social learning. Social learning was, therefore, argued to be an indicator for elaborate mental capacities in animals. We were delighted to prove that horses actually copy social behaviour and techniques for operating a feeding apparatus from older and higher ranking group members. In a recent study we found young horses, at the age of 3 to 12, to copy the operation of a feeding apparatus from a human demonstrator. Social learning seems to work nicely in horses when the social background of the animals is considered.
The degree to which individual animals adapt to changes in their social or physical environment by finding innovative solution appears to be the other side of the coin, of whether animals adjust to challenges by social learning. It is not very astonishing, that along with the animals’ social complexity and their ability to learn socially also the degree to which they show innovative behaviour was claimed to be one of the most important demonstrations of advanced cognitive capacities. In a recent approach, we started to ask horse owners and horse keepers in many countries to tell us about unusual behaviour of their horses via a web site (http://innovative-behaviour.org). To date, we received 204 cases of innovative behaviour descriptions from which six cases were clear examples of tool use or borderline tool use. We categorized the innovative behaviours into the classes, a) innovations to gain food, b) innovations to gain freedom, c) social innovations, d) innovations to increase maintenance, and e) innovations that could not be clearly assigned to a category. About 20% of the innovative horses showed more than one innovation. These animals could be termed “true innovators”. Again, young horses were more innovative than older ones with the age group 5 – 9 showing the highest number of innovative behaviour descriptions.
In a nutshell, the horses’ cognitive capacities appear to be underestimated throughout the last decades. The horses’ social complexity is far more elaborate than previously assumed, horses learn socially from conspecific and humans, some of them demonstrate innovative behaviour adaptations to their environment and even simple forms of tool use.
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Klingel, H.. (2012). Social Organisation and Social Behaviour of the Equids. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: In contrast to the great similarity in behaviour and ecology of the 6 extant Equid species, 2 distinct types of social organisation have evolved, and both are adapted to life in semi-arid to arid regions where environmental conditions force them to migrate seasonally or opportunistically.
The ranges of the various species overlap: Mountain Zebra Equus zebra and Plains Zebra E. quagga in South Africa and Namibia, Plains Zebra and Grevy's Zebra E. grevyi in Kenya and Ethiopia, Grevy's Zebra and African Wild Ass E. africanus in Ethiopia, Asiatic Wild Ass E. hemionus and Przewalski Horse E. przewalski in Mongolia and China. Although, in the overlap zones, individuals of the different species are using the same resources like water and grazing next to each other, they rarely make closer contacts.
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In the type 1 species, Horse, Plains Zebra and Mountain Zebra, the adults live in non-territorial, stable, one-male families and as single bachelors and in bachelor groups. Family stallions have the exclusive mating rights with the mares in their harems. These consist of up to 6 unrelated mares plus their offspring, totalling up to 20 members.
Mares stay in their harem until death. Stallions' tenure is from age 5-6 years, i.e. when they succeed in controlling a harem, for close to life time, but are replaced when dead or incapacitated. Harems are stable even in the absence of a stallion, indicating voluntary membership. Adolescent mares leave their parental families to become members of another harem.
In Plains Zebra the adolescent mares are abducted, during an oestrus, by suitors who fight the defending family stallion/father. Successful stallions are bachelors who start a family, or family stallions enlarging their harem. Young stallions leave their parental families voluntarily at age 2-3 years and join bachelor stallion groups from where the family stallions are recruited.
An individualised dominance hierarchy excists with the stallion in the alpha position. It is based on individual knowledge and recognition of the members.
In the type 2 species Grevy's Zebra, African Wild Ass and Asiatic Wild Ass adult stallions monopolise territories in which they have the exclusive mating rights. Stallions are tolerant of any conspecifics entering their territory. Bachelor stallions behave subordinately – or fight for the possession of the territory which is a prerequisite for reproduction.
Mares join up to form anonymous and unstable groups or herds. The only stable unit is of a mare and her offspring. In Grevy's Zebra mares with foal join preferentially conspecifics of the same soial status, as do mares without foal.
Matings take place inside the territory. There is no lasting relationship of the mare with a particular stallion, and the mare may be mated by any stallion whose territory she is visiting.
Territories measure up to 10 or more square kilometres, and tenure is for several years.
Grevy Zebra territorial owners leave their territories for a few hours to visit a water hole, or for months when grazing and water conditions are below requirements, and re-occupy it upon return, unchallenged.
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Klingel, H.. (2012). Soziale Organisation und Sozialverhalten der Equiden. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Verhalten und Ökologie der 6 rezenten Equiden sind in vieler Hinsicht identisch, jedoch in der Sozialen Organisation haben 2 deutliche verschiedene Formen evoluiert, die beide an das Leben in den semi-ariden und ariden Lebensräumen angepasst sind, wo sie zu säsonalen oder opportunistischen Wanderungen gezwungen sind.
Die Verbreitungsgebiete der verschiedenen Arten überlappen, in Südafrika und Namibia von Bergzebra Equus zebra und Steppenzebra E. quagga, in Kenya und Äthiopien von Steppenzebra und Grevy-Zebra E. grevyi, in Äthipien und Somalia von Grevy-Zebra und Afrikanischem Wildesel E. africanus, in China und der Mongolei Asiatischer Wildesel E. hemionus und Przewalski-Pferd E. przewalskii. Obwohl die Vertreter der verschiedenen Arten in den Überschneidungsgebieten die gleichen Ressourcen wie Wasser und Weide nutzen, nehmen sie kaum Kontakt zueinander auf.
Die Vertreter von Typ 1, Steppenzebra Equus quagga, Bergzebra E..zebra, Pferd E przewalskii, leben in nicht-territorialen , dauerhaften 1- Hengst- Familien, in Hengstgruppen und als Einzelgänger.. Die Familienhengste haben die alleinigen Paarungsrechte mit den Stuten in ihrem Harem. Dieser besteht aus bis zu ca. 6 nicht-verwandten Stuten nebst ihren Nachkommen und kann bis 20 Mitglieder haben.
Stuten bleiben bis zu ihrem Tod im Harem..Hengste können mit 5-6 Jahren einen Harem erobern oder gründen, können gleichfalls bis zum Tod die Familie begleiten, werden aber meist vorher von einem anderen Hengst ersetzt. Harems sind auch ohne Hengst stabil, ein Hinweis, dass die Stuten freiwilling im Harem sind und bleiben.. Junge Stuten verlassen ihre elterliche Familie und schliessen sich einem anderen Harem an..Beim Steppenzebra werden die Jungstuten während eines Östrus (Rosse) von Bewerbern entführt, gegen den Widerstand des Familenhengstes = Vaters. Bewerber sind Junggesellen, die so eine Familie gründen, und Familienhengste, die so ihren Harem vergrössern. Junghengste verlassen mit 2-3Jahren ihre elterliche Familie und schliessen sich Jungesellengruppen an, aus denen sich die Familenhengste rekrutieren.
In der Gruppe besteht eine Rangordnung mit dem Henst in der alpha-Position. Sie beruht aud individuellem Kennen und Erkennen der Mitglieder.
Bei Typ 2, Grevy-Zebra, Afrikanischer und Asiatischer Wildesel, monopolisieren Hengste über Jahre Territorien von 10 und mehr km2 , in denen sie die alleinigen Paarungsrechte haben. Territoriale Hengste tolerieren Artgenossen, auch erwachsene Hengste, soweit diese sich unterlegen verhalten. Oder sie stellen sich zum Kampf um den Besitz des Territoriums, eine Vorbedingung für die Fortpflanzung. Stuten im Östrus können von mehreren Hengsten begattet werden, wenn sie sich in deren Territorien aufhalten bzw diese durchwandern.
Stuten und Fohlen und nicht-territoriale Hengste schliessen sich zu anonymen instabilen Gruppen oder Herden zusammen. Feste dauerhafte Bindungen bestehen nur zwischen Stute und Fohlen. Hengste verlassen ihr Territorium für Stunden, Tage, im Extrem auch Monate, um zu Wasserstellen oder Weidegründen zu ziehen, sind aber bei Rückkehr wieder unangefochtene Besitzer.
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Ahmadinejad, M., Tavakoli, S. (2012). Common injuries in athletic horses in Tehran‘s riding clubs. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press).
Abstract: Various forms of intensive sport activities places stresses on the musculoskeletal system of the horse while involve in any forms of the activity (race &/or training). The musculoskeletal system of the horse has an inherent ability to adapt to the demands of high speed exercise, though if a threshold in adaptive capacity is exceeded, then some forms of damages to the structures of the musculoskeletal system may result. In case, if the insult (race &/or training) continued, it may worsen the repair and adaptation process and put the horse at risk of more serious musculoskeletal injury.
The result of this research describe the finding of the study performed in different breeds of horses involved in various types of activity in Tehran’s riding clubs, concentrating on the types of injuries observed in those horses. The study was then focused on the types of injuries observed in various activities (events) horses involved in.
Totally 400 horses took part in various activities during race season (March – September) in Tehran’s riding clubs, out of which 26 horses injured, in most of which musculoskeletal system of the fore limbs were involved.
From the sexual aspect of the study the percentages of the stallions were more (54%) when compared to the mares (46%). In this study the relation between the sex, breed, age and the weight of the horses with anatomical site of the injury, outcome of the injury, climate and the type of the event (jumping, polo etc.) were studied and compare with each other.
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