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Lloyd, A. S., Martin, J. E., Bornett-Gauci, H. L. I., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2008). Horse personality: Variation between breeds. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 112(3-4), 369–383.
Abstract: Anecdotal evidence from horse owners and handlers suggests the existence of breed typical behaviour and personality in horses. This is further supported by current research on heritability of personality characteristics in a range of species. The Horse Personality Questionnaire (HPQ) is a 25-item rating method that has previously been shown to be reliable for the assessment of personality in horses. Principal component analysis on HPQ data has identified six underlying personality components in horses. These are Dominance, Anxiousness, Excitability, Protection, Sociability and Inquisitiveness. Using the HPQ a survey of 1223 horses of eight different breeds was completed. Data were analysed to explore any differences in personality between breeds across the six personality components. Breed differences in personality were identified, and it was noted that variability between breeds varied between personality components. Anxiousness and Excitability showed the most variation between breeds, whilst Dominance and Protection showed the least variance. The results identified breed typical personalities that were comparable to results from previous studies as well as anecdotal evidence provided by the popular equine literature. The results are discussed in terms of the potential selection pressures that may have resulted in these differences.
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Hausberger, M., Gautier, E., Muller, C., & Jego, P. (2007). Lower learning abilities in stereotypic horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 107(3-4), 299–306.
Abstract: The question of whether motor stereotypies may be associated with learning disorders is a highly debated issue both in humans and animals, but evidence is still scarce. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relation between the occurrence of stereotypic behaviours in horses where stereotypies are well described and learning abilities measurable. Seventy horses were observed in their box at two periods (August and November) and were then submitted to an instrumental task (opening a chest by raising the lid using the nose). Fifty-one of them had shown stereotypic behaviours at both periods. It appeared that more stereotypic horses (36/51) were unsuccessful than non-stereotypic horses (3/19) in the learning task. When successful, they required a longer time in order to perform the task (368 s on average against 220 for the non-stereotypic horses). No difference was found according to the type of stereotypy performed. This is to our knowledge the first time that a relation is found between stereotypy and learning in an animal species. The additional finding that stereotypic horses spent less time lying down and sleeping suggests a possible role of attentional processes. This finding has important implications for the horse industry.
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Nagy, K., Schrott, A., & Kabai, P. (2008). Possible influence of neighbours on stereotypic behaviour in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 111(3-4), 321–328.
Abstract: Revealing risk factors of abnormal stereotypic behaviour (ASB) in horses can help in the design of protective measures. Previous epidemiological studies indicate that social isolation, housing, management conditions, and feeding regime have a strong effect on developing ASB. The common belief that exposure to a stereotypic horse increases the risk of ASB has never been substantiated. Here we report that a generalised linear mixed models (GLMM) analysis of data on 287 horses of nine riding schools revealed that exposure to a stereotypic neighbour is a significant risk factor for performing stereotypy. Also, aggressive behaviour towards other horses increased the odds of stereotypy in the aggressor. These correspondences are unlikely to be a riding-school effect, because riding schools were treated as random factor in the GLMM. Risk factors identified by epidemiological studies cannot be treated as causal agents without independent evidence. Our aim in presenting these findings was to draw attention to the possibility of neighbour effects so that other researchers would include this variable in their surveys.
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Piggins, D., & Phillips, C. J. C. (1998). Awareness in domesticated animals--concepts and definitions. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 57(3-4), 181–200.
Abstract: Humans will probably never experience the awareness of another species, but adopting a broad concept of awareness leads to the conclusion that other species have some awareness. The existence of a more complex mind in humans, compared with other species, leads some to suggest that awareness only exists in humans. We postulate that humans possess a significantly increased level of awareness, facilitated in particular by the acquisition of language, but that generally animals possess a level of awareness that is appropriate to their needs. Categories of awareness can be devised by identifying levels, such as are used in the identification of the conscious state in humans, or by ranking states of awareness in order of complexity. A scheme is proposed that combines these two approaches, which is considered suitable for use with domesticated animals. The advantages of identifying awareness as being sensation-, perception- or cognition-based are discussed, as well as the possibility of a scheme based on the degree and site of CNS processing. Finally, the acquisition of awareness by learning and inheritance is considered, and it is argued that in variable environments, animals will evolve increased awareness, whereas in very stable environments the energetic cost of awareness will encourage the evolution of less aware animals.
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Lomas, C. A., Piggins, D., & Phillips, C. J. C. (1998). Visual awareness. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 57(3-4), 247–257.
Abstract: Awareness varies between different species and humans can never truly appreciate what it is like to be another individual, either of the same species or another. Visual perceptual faculties provide some evidence of the extent to which domesticated animals derive information from objects in their environment, whilst changes in behaviour resulting from different visual stimuli can also provide valuable information on the state of visual awareness. Extensive processing of potentially visual information must occur in all domesticated species, but is much less well understood than purely sensory based information. For example, sensory aspects of colour vision are reasonably well understood, but the role of wavelength variables in an animal's cognition and its colour experience is not clear. Considerable use is made of diurnal changes in photoperiod to synchronise endogenous rhythms to particular times of the day and the year. Variation in light intensity in natural images is also important for social reasons for animals to be able to discriminate between, e.g., different faces, but little is known about intensity preferences or the effects of intensity on behaviour. It appears likely that in many cases visual stimuli represent some of the most important influences on an animal's awareness, either alone or in combination with, e.g., olfactory cues. However, a much greater understanding of their processing is required before we can make useful deductions about visual awareness in domesticated animals.
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Veissier, I. (1993). Observational learning in cattle. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 35(3), 235–243.
Abstract: Four experiments were designed to find evidence of observational learning in cattle. The experiments were run on ten experimental heifers, each observing a demonstrator mate performing a task, and on ten control heifers, each observing a non-demonstrator mate. The mates and observers were separated by wire netting in Experiments 1-3, but were in the same room in Experiment 4. The task to be learned was to push a panel to get food into a box. All naive animals were able to observe while their mate performed the task. The observers in Experiments 1 and 4 were Salers heifers that had no prior experience of the testing room; those in Experiment 2 were Salers heifers that were accustomed to the room; those in Experiment 3 were Aubrac or Limousin heifers that had already eaten in the room.
The behaviour of the observers was influenced by their mates: activity at or near the boxes was enhanced by the presence of demonstrators in Experiment 2 (box contacts: 38.0 +/- 16.2 vs. 22.1 +/- 11.9 for experimental and control heifers, respectively; P<0.05), while activity in other parts of the room in Experiment 3 was enhanced when non-demonstrator mates were present (wall sniffing: 5.4 +/- 13.9 vs. 13.9 +/- 13.7; P<0.05). Overall, 26 experimental heifers vs. 19 controls learned the task (P>0.05). The time spent eating was longer when the observer only had visual contact with a demonstrator (Experiment 1: 15.9 +/- 1.6 vs. 11.6 +/- 1.8 min), but was lower when physical contacts with the demonstrator were possible (Experiment 4: 4.6 +/- 8.8 vs. 5.4 +/- 2.2 min; P<0.05).
Ten out of the 11 Limousin heifers learned the task, compared with only three out of the nine Aubrac heifers (P<0.05). The latter spent more time near the door and sniffed the walls more often than the former (2.0 +/- 1.9 vs. 0.4 +/- 0.6 min, P<0.05, and 18.1 +/- 13.4 vs. 2.7 +/- 6.5 min, P<0.01), as though they were trying to flee the situation.
When animals observed a demonstrator, their attention was drawn to stimuli involved in the task but acquisition of knowledge was not greatly improved.
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Veissier, I., Boissy, A., Nowak, R., Orgeur, P., & Poindron, P. (1998). Ontogeny of social awareness in domestic herbivores. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 57(3-4), 233–245.
Abstract: It is now well established that domestic animals construct responses to their environment that depend on experience and on integration of several features of the environment, including social partners. This ability to be aware of the environment is not fully developed at birth but improves and varies through the animal's life. This topic is discussed on the basis of social processes in sheep and cattle. Social relationships of an animal with its conspecifics develop with age; they do not merely depend on pre-programmed behaviours but rely at least in part on learning of characteristics of the partners. Soon after birth, a strong preferential bond establishes with the dam then to a lesser extent, the young associates to other members of the flock, especially other young. The attractiveness of the group varies later in life due to external events or to physiological state: the abrupt separation from the dam at artificial weaning strengthens bonds between peers, whereas around parturition, females are less disturbed by isolation from the group. More recently, the awareness of social partners has been described in non-social contexts: the animal modifies its responses to events according to the presence of partners, and also to their emotional state and behaviour. The effects of partners seem to depend on their relationship with the animal and also on the social motivation of that animal, which both vary during its life. We recommend study of the ontogeny of awareness using the model of social influences.
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Williams, J. L., Friend, T. H., Toscano, M. J., Collins, M. N., Sisto-Burt, A., & Nevill, C. H. (2002). The effects of early training sessions on the reactions of foals at 1, 2, and 3 months of age. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 77(2), 105–114.
Abstract: An early training procedure commonly termed “foal imprint training” is widely promoted in the horse industry. However, there have been no published scientific investigations of its efficacy. This study determined the effects of a training procedure on foals and their reaction to stimuli used in the early training procedure, and to a novel stimulus, at 1, 2 and 3 months of age. Twenty-five foals received a standard training procedure at 2, 12, 24, and 48 h after birth. After the training procedure, the foals received minimal additional handling that included veterinary treatments and occasional relocation. Twenty-two foals born over the same time period served as controls. All 47 (25 trained, 22 control) foals were tested at 1 month of age. Only 20 were available for testing at 2 months of age, and nine were available at 3 months. Percentage change from baseline heart rate, time required to complete exposure to each stimulus (foals that were more reactive took longer) and the behavior of each foal during the introduction of each stimulus were recorded. Overall, the control foals tended to receive lower (better) behavioral scores at 1 and 2 months of age. Foals that underwent the training procedure tended to require less time to complete exposure to the stimulus and had lower heart rates during exposure to the stimuli at 1 and 2 months of age. By 3 months of age, there were no significant differences between trained and control foals for any measures. Early training was not efficacious in this study.
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Hausberger, M., Roche, H., Henry, S., & Visser, E. K. (2008). A review of the human-horse relationship. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 109(1), 1–24.
Abstract: Despite a long history of human-horse relationship, horse-related incidents and accidents do occur amongst professional and non professional horse handlers. Recent studies show that their occurrence depend more on the frequency and amount of interactions with horses than on the level of competency, suggesting a strong need for specific research and training of individuals working with horses. In the present study, we review the current scientific knowledge on human-horse relationships. We distinguish here short occasional interactions with familiar or unfamiliar horses (e.g. veterinary inspection) and long-term bonds (e.g. horse-owner). An important aspect of the horse-human relationship is to try and improve the development and maintenance of a strong positive relationship. Studies show that deficits in the management conditions (housing, feeding, possibilities for social contact, and training methods) may lead to relational problems between horses and humans. Different methods have been used to assess and improve the human-horse relation, especially at the young age. They reveal that the time and type of contact all play a role, while recent studies suggest that the use of familiarized social models might be a great help through social facilitation. We argue that an important theoretical framework could be Hinde's [Hinde, R., 1979. Towards Understanding Relationships. Academic Press, Londres] definition of a relationship as an emerging bond from a series of interactions: partners have expectations on the next interaction on the basis of the previous ones. Understanding that a relationship is built up on the basis of a succession of interactions is an important step as it suggests that attention is being paid to the “positive” or “negative” valence of each interaction as a step for the next one. A better knowledge of learning rules is certainly necessary in this context not only to train the horse but also to counterbalance the unavoidable negative inputs that exist in routine procedures and reduce their impact on the relationship. It appears clearly that research is needed in order to assess how to better and safely approach the horse (e.g. research in position, posture, gaze, etc.), what type of approaches and timing may help in developing a positive bond, what influence human management and care have on the relationship, and how this can be adapted to have a positive influence on the relationship. Also the interaction between rider and horse, the search for the optimal match between two individuals, is an aspect of the horse-human relationship that requires attention in order to decrease the number of horse-riding accidents and reduced states of welfare. On the other hand, adequate knowledge is readily available that may improve the present situation rapidly. Developing awareness and attention to behavioural cues given by horses would certainly help decreasing accidents among professionals when interacting. Scientists therefore should play a major role in transmitting not only elements of the current knowledge of the ethology of the horse but also by helping developing observational skills.
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Warren-Smith, A. K., Curtis, R. A., Greetham, L., & McGreevy, P. D. (2007). Rein contact between horse and handler during specific equitation movements. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 108(1-2), 157–169.
Abstract: To explore the range of tensions used in reins to elicit specific movements from a range of horses, 22 horses of mixed age, sex, breed and training history were long-reined and ridden through a standard course. The reins contained embedded load cells so that tensions used to elicit specific movements could be measured and logged. These movements were categorised into `left turn', `right turn', `going straight' and `halt' and were separated for left and right rein tensions. The data were analysed using two-sample non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnoff tests and the differences between categories of horse and equipment were analysed with one-way analysis of variance. The tensions recorded in the reins were greater for long-reining than riding (median 5.76, Q25 3.9, Q75 13.3 N and median 5.29, Q25 9.3, Q75 2.9 N, respectively, P = 0.025), irrespective of whether the horses were ridden with a halter or a bridle or whether the test was completed at a walk or a trot. The tensions did not differ between the left and right reins (P > 0.05) when the horses were being driven or ridden in a straight line, providing evidence that an `even contact' was maintained. The rein tension required for going straight was less than for any other responses, showing that a lighter contact on the reins can be maintained between the application of specific stimuli. The rein tension required to elicit the halt response was greater than for any other response (P < 0.001). The rein tensions required to complete the course did not differ with the use of bridle versus the halter (P > 0.05). Clearly, a range of rein tensions is required for horses to elicit specific responses. In the interests of horse welfare and avoidance of habituation, those involved in equitation need to become aware of the tensions used in training horses and seek to keep them to a minimum. When rein tension can be measured objectively, this process can be easily implemented and monitored.
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