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Cooper, J. J. (2007). Equine learning behaviour: Common knowledge and systematic research. Behav. Process., 76, 24–26.
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Cooper, J. J., Ashton, C., Bishop, S., West, R., Mills, D. S., & Young, R. J. (2003). Clever hounds: social cognition in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 81(3), 229–244.
Abstract: This paper reviews the reasons why domestic dogs make good models to investigate cognitive processes related to social living and describes experimental approaches that can be adopted to investigate such processes in dogs. Domestic dogs are suitable models for investigating social cognition skills for three broad reasons. First, dogs originated from wolves, social animals that engage in a number of co-operative behaviours, such as hunting and that may have evolved cognitive abilities that help them predict and interpret the actions of other animals. Second, during domestication dogs are likely to have been selected for mental adaptations for their roles in human society such as herding or companionship. Third, domestic dogs live in a human world and “enculturation” may facilitate the development of relevant mental skills in dogs. Studies of social cognition in animals commonly use experimental paradigms originally developed for pre-verbal human infants. Preferential gaze, for example, can be used as a measure of attention or “surprise” in studies using expectancy violation. This approach has been used to demonstrate simple numerical competence in dogs. Dogs also readily use both conspecific and human social signals (e.g. looking or pointing) as information sources to locate hidden rewards such as food or favourite toys. Such abilities make dogs particularly good models for investigating perspective-taking tasks, where animals are required to discriminate between apparently knowledgeable and apparently ignorant informants.
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Coussi-Korbel, S., & Fragaszy, D. M. (1995). On the relation between social dynamics and social learning. Anim. Behav., 50(6), 1441–1453.
Abstract: Experimental studies on social learning in animals have commonly centred on the psychological processes responsible for learning, and neglected social processes as potential influences on both the likelihood of social learning and the type of information that can be acquired socially. A model relating social learning to social dynamics among members of a group is presented. Three key hypotheses of the model are (1) behavioural coordination in time and/or space supports the process of social learning; (2) different kinds of coordination differentially support acquisition of different kinds of information; and (3) the various forms of behavioural coordination will be differentially affected by social dynamics. Several predictions relating inter-individual and group differences in social dynamics to social learning that follow from these hypotheses are presented.
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Cowley, J. J., & Griesel, R. D. (1966). The effect on growth and behaviour of rehabilitating first and second generation low protein rats. Anim. Behav., 14(4), 506–517.
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Cozzi, A., Sighieri, C., Gazzano, A., Nicol, C. J., & Baragli, P. (2010). Post-conflict friendly reunion in a permanent group of horses (Equus caballus). Behav. Process., 85(2), 185–190.
Abstract: Gregarious animals living in permanent social groups experience intra-group competition. Conflicts over resources can escalate into costly aggression and, in some conditions, non-dispersive forms of conflict resolution may be favoured. Post-conflict friendly reunions, hence reconciliation, have been described in a variety of species. The aim of this study was to explore, for the first time, the occurrence of reconciliation in a group of domestic horses (Equus caballus) and learn more about strategies used to maintain group cohesion. The behaviour of seven horses living as permanent group in an enclosure for at least 2 years was observed by video for 108 h from June to August 2007. We used a Post-Conflict/Matched Control method to assess the existence of reconciliation and third-party affiliation. Behaviours recorded Post-Conflict, or during Matched Control periods, were classified as affiliative based on previous descriptions of visual communication patterns in horses. The proportion of attracted pairs over total post-conflict situations was significantly greater than the proportion of dispersed pairs, both during dyadic interactions (p < 0.001) and during triadic interactions (p = 0.002). The results of the present study show that both dyadic reconciliation and third-party post-conflict affiliative interactions form important social mechanisms for managing post-conflict situations in horses.
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Creighton, E. (2007). Equine learning behaviour: Limits of ability and ability limits of trainers. Behav. Process., 76(1), 43–44.
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Crockford, C., Wittig, R. M., Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (2007). Baboons eavesdrop to deduce mating opportunities. Anim. Behav., 73(5), 885–890.
Abstract: Many animals appear to monitor changes in other individuals' dominance ranks and social relationships and to track changes in them. However, it is not known whether they also track changes in very transient relationships. Rapid recognition of a temporary separation between a dominant male and a sexually receptive female, for example, should be adaptive in species where subordinate males use opportunistic strategies to achieve mating success. Dominant male baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus) form sexual consortships with oestrous females that are characterized by mate guarding and close proximity. To assess whether subordinate males track temporary changes in the status of other males' consortships, we conducted playback experiments using a two-speaker paradigm. In the test condition, subjects heard the consort male's grunts played from one speaker and his consort female's copulation call played from a speaker approximately 40 m away. This sequence suggested that the male and female had temporarily separated and that the female was mating with another male. In a control trial, subjects heard another dominant male's grunts played from one speaker and the female's copulation call played from the other. In a second control trial, conducted within 24 h after the consortship had ended, subjects again heard the consort male's grunt and the female's copulation call played from separate speakers. As predicted, subjects responded strongly only in the test condition. Eavesdropping upon the temporal and spatial juxtaposition of other individuals' vocalizations may be one strategy by which male baboons achieve sneaky matings.
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Croney, C. C., Prince-Kelly, N., & Meller, C. L. (2007). A note on social dominance and learning ability in the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 105(1-3), 254–259.
Abstract: Relatively little is known about the relationship between social behavior and specific cognitive abilities of the chicken. It is uncertain whether dominant birds have a cognitive advantage over subordinate birds that might facilitate their superior position in the social hierarchy. Likewise, it is unknown whether subordinate birds compete successfully with higher ranking birds because their cognitive capacities compensate for physical deficits. In this study, the relationship between the chicken's position in the dominance hierarchy and its performance on a cognitive task was explored. Ten pairs of New Hampshire domestic roosters (Gallus gallus) were observed to determine dominance or subordinance within dyads. All birds were then trained and tested on a visual discrimination learning task. Discriminative stimuli were orange and green plastic discs. Correct stimuli (orange or green) were randomly assigned to birds. Placement of the discs (left or right of center) was also randomly assigned and counterbalanced to avoid a side bias. Birds were rewarded with food for pecking at the correct disc. Criterion for task completion was 80% correct responses on three consecutive test sessions or 86% correct on two consecutive sessions. All subjects met the test criterion. The number of trials to criterion was compared between dominant and subordinate birds using a paired t-test. No difference was found in performance between dominant and subordinate birds (p > 0.05) suggesting that in chickens, ability to learn a novel visual discrimination task is not well correlated with rank. Additional studies, particularly using different learning paradigms, are needed to confirm these results.
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Croneya, C. C. (2007). Group size and cognitive processes. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 103(3-4), 15–228.
Abstract: Animal group sizes may exert important effects on various cognitive mechanisms. Group
size is believed to exert pressures on fundamental brain structures that correlate with the
increased social demands placed on animals living in relatively large, complex and dynamic
social organizations. There is strong experimental evidence connecting social complexity,
social learning and development of other cognitive abilities in a broad range of wild and
domesticated animal species. In particular, group size seems to have significant effects on
animals? abilities to derive concrete and abstract relationships. Here, we review the literature
pertaining to cognitive processes and behaviours of various animal species relative to group
size, with emphasis on social learning. It is suggested that understanding the relationship
between group size and cognition in animals may yield practical animal management
benefits, such as housing and conservation strategies, and may also have implications for
improved animal welfare.
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Crowell-Davis, S., & Houpt, K. A. (1985). The ontogeny of flehmen in horses. Anim. Behav., 33(3), 739–745.
Abstract: Flehmen behaviour in Welsh pony (Equus caballus) mares and foals living on pasture was observed during 807 h of focal sampling. A series of flehmens performed at one site was defined as a flehmen incident. Colts exhibited flehmen incidents and performed flehmen more frequently during an incident than did fillies or mares. Filies exhibited flehmen incidents more frequently than did mares, but did not flehmen more frequently during an incident. Colts exhibited a peak frequency of performing flehmen and of flehmen incidents during weeks 1-4 with a subsequent linear decrease in frequency up to weeks 17-20. Usually, flehmen occurred without the subject having had direct contact of the nostrils, lips, or tongue with a possible stimulant. Twenty-six per cent of the flehmen incidents occurred during or after urination by another pony. Seven per cent of the incidents occurred during or after urination by the pony showing flehmen.
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