Abstract: Current definitions of horse personality traits are rather vague, lacking clear, universally accepted guidelines for evaluation in performance tests. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to screen behavioural and physiological measurements taken during riding for potential links with scores the same horses received in the official stallion performance test for rideability and personality traits. Behaviour, heart rate (HR) and HR variability from thirty-six stallions participating in a performance test were recorded repeatedly during their performance test training. Using the coefficient of determination, regression analysis revealed that about 1/3 of variation (ranging between r = 0.26 (“constitution” (i.e. fitness, health)) and r = 0.46 (rideability)) in the personality trait scores could be explained by selecting the three most influential behaviour patterns per trait. These behaviour patterns included stumbling (with all traits except character), head-tossing (temperament, rideability), tail-swishing (willingness to work), involuntary change in gait (character) and the rider's use of her/his hands (constitution, rideability), voice (temperament) or whip (constitution). Subsequent mixed model analysis revealed a significant (P < 0.05) influence of the behaviour pattern “horse-induced change in gait” on character (-0.98 ± 0.31 scores per additional occurrence of change in gaits), of head-tossing (-0.25 ± 0.08 scores) and rider's use of voice (-0.51 ± 0.25; P = 0.0594) on temperament, and of stumbling on each of the following: willingness to work (-2.5 ± 1.2), constitution (-2.5 ± 1.2 scores; P = 0.0516) and rideability scores (-3.3 ± 1.4). In addition, constitution scores tended (P = 0.0889) to increase with higher low frequency/high frequency heart rate variation ratios (LF/HF), indicating a shift towards sympathetic dominance and thus a higher stress load in horses with higher scores for constitution. Rideability scores from the training phase were also significantly influenced by head-tossing (-0.5 ± 0.1), and in addition rideability scores from the final test were influenced by the training rider, ranging between average estimated rideability scores of 6.8 ± 0.4 for one training rider and 8.36 ± 0.3 scores for another training rider. Horses ridden with their nose-line predominantly behind the vertical received higher scores for rideability (8.3 ± 0.3) than horses ridden with their nose-line at the vertical (7.7 ± 0.2). These findings indicate that either judges perceive horses to have a better rideability when they readily offer a more extreme poll flexion, or that riders make use of horses’ better rideability by imposing a more extreme poll flexion. Several of the above described associations, but also of the non-existing links (e.g. no association between shying or heart rate and temperament) between behaviour patterns and scores for personality traits are rather surprising, warranting further investigation regarding the underlying causes of these relationships. Some of these behaviour patterns should be considered when redesigning the current guidelines for evaluation of personality traits during breeding horse performance tests, ultimately leading to improved genetic selection for equine personality traits. However, ethical implication of defining aversive behaviour such as head-tossing as an indicator of, for example, poor temperament, should not be neglected when devising new guidelines: such aversive behaviour may in fact be an indication of inadequate training techniques rather than poor horse personality.

Abstract: Weaving, a common locomotor stereotypy, has been associated with social isolation in stabled horses. In this study we investigated the effect of provision of mirrors on weaving as this may have a similar effect to access to conspecifics. The behaviour of six known weavers, each in one of three locations within a working equine yard, was recorded, 5 days a week for 12 weeks. After a pre-trial period of a week, one horse in each of the three locations was provided with a 1mx1.5m mirror for 5 weeks, after which time the mirrors were removed and placed in the stables of the other three subjects for the next 5 weeks. All mirrors were then removed and the horses observed for a final week (post-trial period). The provision of a mirror significantly reduced the incidence of both stereotypic weaving (P<0.001) and nodding (P<0.05) for the 5 weeks of treatment but did not affect the time the horses spent standing active, dozing or ingesting. The mirror may mimic visual contact with conspecifics (minimising the social isolation of the stable) and/or provide environmental distraction or additional visual stimuli, altering the horses' perception of the environment and their resultant responses to it. The use of mirrors in the stable appears to be a more effective treatment of weaving than many current popular treatments, including weaving bars.

Abstract: Two mazes were used to test the learning ability and memory of horses, and changes in these abilities. Testing was done on four occasions. On Occasion 1, the horses were run through Maze A until they had reached the criterion of three consecutive correct runs. A week later (Occasion 2), they were retested in Maze A to the same criterion as a measure of memory. On Occasion 3,2 months later, the horses were run through Mazes A and B until they reached the criterion. Occasion 4 took place 1 week later when they were run through Mazes A and B. An estimation of changes in ability to learn came from a comparison of results from Occasions 1 and 3. Similarly, changes in ability to remember came from a comparison of results from Occasions 2 and 4. Nine horses with a variable amount of riding training were the subjects. All horses were able to learn the maze, but the ability varied among horses. There was no obvious correlation between quality of handling of the horses and learning ability. Once the horses had learned the maze, they remembered it perfectly on subsequent occasions. There were changes in the memory and learning ability of the horses, but no clear explanation for this could be found.

Abstract: Social influences on established behaviour and on the acquisition of new information and behaviour are reviewed. Distinctions between social facilitation and contagious behaviour are drawn and suggestions for further research on contagious behaviour are made. Socially derived visual, olfactory and auditory cues are considered as important influences on behaviour and subsequent learning. The evidence supporting two potential mechanisms of social learning, i.e. stimulus enhancement followed by individual learning, and imitation, is reviewed in detail. It is argued that the functions of social learning are similarly heterogeneous and include motor skill acquisition, gathering of environmental information, and social conformity. Factors affecting the spread of socially acquired skills, including the social relationship between demonstrator and observer, are highlighted. Lastly, the few studies of social learning that have been conducted with domestic species are reviewed and potential applied goals that could stimulate further research in this area are suggested.

Abstract: The responsiveness of 10 horses and 10 ponies to environmental challenge (represented by an open field test) was assessed using a qualitative approach based on free choice profiling methodology (FCP), which gives observers complete freedom to choose their own descriptive terms. Data were analysed with generalised Procrustes analysis (GPA), a multivariate statistical technique associated with FCP. A cross-validation of the outcomes of this approach to data recorded through quantitative behaviour analysis, and through a questionnaire given to the animals' owner/riding instructor, was also performed using principal component analysis (PCA). Twelve undergraduate students generated their own descriptive vocabularies, by watching 20 horse/pony video clips lasting 2.5 min each. GPA showed that the consensus profile explained a high percentage of variation among the 12 observers, and differed significantly from the mean randomised profile (p < 0.001). Two main dimensions of the consensus profile were identified, explaining 60% and 5.2% of the variation between animals, respectively. The 12 observer word charts interpreting these dimensions were semantically consistent, as they all converged towards the same meaning, albeit using different terms. The most used term to describe the positive end of axis 1 was “quiet”, whereas “attentive” was the best positive descriptor of axis 2. The most frequently used descriptors for the negative ends of axes 1 and 2 were “nervous” and “bored”, respectively. Thus, axis 1 was labelled as “quiet/nervous” and axis 2 was named as “attentive/bored”. A marked effect of animal category was observed on the scores of the animals on the first dimension (p < 0.001). Horses received significantly higher scores, and were thus assessed as more quiet and calm, than ponies. Conversely, ponies tended to receive lower scores on the second dimension (p < 0.12), therefore they appeared less curious and attentive. The results of the PCA showed that the variables from different types of measurement clearly had meaningful relationships. For instance, the variables with the highest loading on the positive end of axis 1 were all indicative of tractable and docile animals, whereas axis 2 showed high loadings on the positive end for variables indicating attentive animals. Qualitative behaviour assessment proved to be an appropriate methodology for the study of horse behavioural responsiveness, in that it provided a multifaceted characterisation of horse behavioural expression that was in agreement with other quantitative and subjective assessments of the animals' behaviour.