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Clegg, H. A., Buckley, P., Friend, M. A., & McGreevy, P. D. (2008). The ethological and physiological characteristics of cribbing and weaving horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 109(1), 68–76.
Abstract: Data were gathered on the behavioural and physiological characteristics of five cribbers, six weavers and six non-stereotypic (control) mature Thoroughbred geldings for a period of 16 weeks. The horses were hired from their owners and stabled individually throughout the trial. Cribbers and weavers had been known to stereotype for at least 12 months prior to commencement of the study. Behavioural data were collected using video surveillance. Cribbers stereotyped most frequently (PÂ <Â 0.001) in the period 2-8Â h following delivery of concentrated food, reinforcing the suggestion that diet is implicated in cribbing behaviour. Weavers stereotyped most frequently (PÂ <Â 0.001) during periods of high environmental activity such as during routine pre-feeding activities and in the hour prior to daily turnout, presumably when anticipation and stimulation were at their highest levels. Cribbers and weavers took longer than control horses to fully consume their ration, suggesting possible differences in motivation to feed, distress levels, satiety mechanisms or abdominal discomfort. Physiological data were collected throughout the trial and there were no differences in oro-caecal transit time, digestibility, plasma cortisol concentration or heart rate among the three behavioural groups.
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Kotrschal, K., Schöberl, I., Bauer, B., Thibeaut, A. - M., & Wedl, M. (2009). Dyadic relationships and operational performance of male and female owners and their male dogs. Behav. Process., 81(3), 383–391.
Abstract: In the paper we investigate how owner personality, attitude and gender influence dog behavior, dyadic practical functionality and the level of dog salivary cortisol. In three meetings, 12 female and 10 male owners of male dogs answered questionnaires including the Neo-FFI human personality inventory. Their dyadic behavior was video-taped in a number of test situations, and saliva samples were collected. Owners who scored highly in neuroticism (Neo-FFI dimension one) viewed their dogs as social supporters and spent much time with them. Their dogs had low baseline cortisol levels, but such dyads were less successful in the operational task. Owners who scored highly in extroversion (Neo-FFI dimension two) appreciated shared activities with their dogs which had relatively high baseline cortisol values. Dogs that had female owners were less sociable-active (dog personality axis 1) than dogs that had male owners. Therefore, it appears that owner gender and personality influences dyadic interaction style, dog behavior and dyadic practical functionality.
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Breuer, K., Hemsworth, P. H., & Coleman, G. J. (2003). The effect of positive or negative handling on the behavioural and physiological responses of nonlactating heifers. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 84(1), 3–22.
Abstract: This experiment investigated the effects of positive and negative tactile handling on the stress physiology and behaviour of dairy heifers. Forty-eight 5-14-month-old nonlactating Holstein-Friesian heifers were allocated to one of two handling treatments, either positive or negative tactile handling, over four time replicates. Handling was imposed twice daily, 2-5 min per session and involved moving animals individually along a 64 m outdoor route. The negatively handled heifers took longer to approach within 1 and 2 m of a stimulus person in a standard test, than their positively handled counterparts (P<0.001) and had a greater flight distance to an approaching stimulus (P<0.001). The time taken by the heifers to approach within 1 and 2 m of a familiar person was similar to that taken to approach within 1 and 2 m of an unfamiliar person in the standard test (P<0.05). There was a tendency for heifers to have a greater flight distance from the approaching unfamiliar person than from the approaching familiar person (P=0.06). The negatively handled heifers had greater (P<0.05) increases in total cortisol concentrations 5, 10 and 15 min after exposure to a human and had higher (P<0.05) free cortisol concentrations in the afternoon than the positively handled heifers. It is concluded that the nature of the human contact affects the subsequent behavioural response of heifers to humans. This behavioural response may extend to other humans through the process of stimulus generalisation, although there was some evidence of moderate discrimination. Negative handling results in an acute stress response in the presence of humans and also leads to a chronic stress response. Further research into the effect of these stress responses on milk production and welfare in fearful cows in a commercial situation is suggested.
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Flauger, B., Krueger, K., Gerhards, H., & Möstl, E. (2010). Simplified method to measure glucocorticoid metabolites in faeces of horses. Vet Res Comm, 34(2), 185–195.
Abstract: Glucocorticoids or their metabolites can be measured in several body fluids or excreta, including plasma, saliva, urine and faeces. In recent years the measurement of glucocorticoid metabolites (GCMs) in faeces has gained increasing attention, because of its suitability for wild populations. In horses, however, the group-specific enzyme immunoassay described so far has a limited racticability due to its complex extraction procedure. Therefore, we tested the applicability of
other enzyme immunoassays for glucocorticoid metabolites. The present study clearly proved that an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for 11-oxoetiocholanolone using 11-oxoetiocholanolone-17-CMO: BSA (3α,11-oxo-A EIA) as antigen showed high amounts of immunoreactive substances. Therefore it was possible to use just a small amount of the supernatant of a methanolic suspension of faeces. The results
correlated well with the already described method for measuring GCMs in horse faeces, i.e. analysing the samples with an EIA after a two step clean up procedure of the samples (Merl et al. 2000). In addition, the 3α,11-oxo-A EIA has the advantage of providing a bigger difference between baseline values and peak values after ACTH stimulation. The new assay increased the accuracy of the test,
lowered the expenses per sample, and storing samples at room temperature after collection was less critical than with other assays investigated in our study. This is a big advantage both in the field of wildlife management of equids and in the field of equestrian sports and it shows the importance of choosing an assay which is in good accordance with the metabolites excreted in a given species.
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Nagy, K., Bodó, G., Bárdos, G., Harnos, A., & Kabai, P. (2009). The effect of a feeding stress-test on the behaviour and heart rate variability of control and crib-biting horses (with or without inhibition). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 121(2), 140–147.
Abstract: Crib-biting is a form of oral stereotypy affecting 4-5% of horses. Once fixed, crib-biting is difficult to eliminate by behaviour therapy, however, its performance can be inhibited by collar or surgery treatment (modified Forssell's procedure). Although surgical intervention is widespread, the effects on stress coping in horses have not been studied. In the present study we evaluated changes in behaviour response and heart rate variability in 9 control, 10 crib-biting, 10 collar and 11 surgically treated horses in a feeding stress-test, in which a feeding-bowl was placed in front but out of the reach of the horses, from which tidbits were given 3 times. We found that stress triggers high oral activity, mainly cribbing in crib-biting horses, elevates other forms of oral activities in the inhibited groups and does not affect oral activities of controls. Instead of performing oral activities, control horses tended to target an unavailable feeding-bowl by pawing or head-tossing. Changes in stress level were indistinguishable in controls and crib-biters as heart rate variability returned to baseline values in both groups. In contrast, horses inhibited to perform crib-biting showed elevated stress level throughout the test period. Our results suggest that crib-biting may develop to cope with stress, and such coping function diminishes when inhibited.
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Kay, R., & Hall, C. (2009). The use of a mirror reduces isolation stress in horses being transported by trailer. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 116(2-4), 237–243.
Abstract: Horse trailers are a common form of transportation for horses and ponies and often require the animal to travel alone or with a single companion. The current study investigated the effect of transporting horses alone, in company or with an acrylic safety mirror (measuring 81cm61.5cm) that provided surrogate companionship. The behavioural and physiological responses of 12 mature horses during a 30-min journey by trailer under the three treatments were compared. Behaviours (vocalisation, eating, head-tossing, pawing, and head-turning) were recorded. In order to assess circulatory changes that occur as part of the response to transport, heart rate (HR), rectal (Tr) and ear-pinna (Tp) temperatures were recorded. When travelling with a live companion significantly less time was spent vocalising (p<0.001), head-turning (p<0.001), head-tossing (p<0.01) and pawing (p<0.01); eating behaviour increased (p<0.05). Physiological responses (increases in HR and Tr and decreases in Tp) were also significantly reduced when travelling with a live companion (p<0.01). Travelling with the mirror did not significantly affect physiological responses compared with travelling alone, but the rise in Tr and fall in Tp was reduced (p=0.052 and p=0.051, respectively) and can be considered a trend. When travelling with a mirror significantly less time was spent turning the head (p<0.01), vocalising (p<0.05) and head-tossing (p<0.05); eating behaviour increased (p<0.05). The only significant difference between travelling with a live companion and a mirror was that the time spent turning the head round was less with a live companion (p<0.05). The provision of surrogate companionship in the form of a mirror was found to be preferable to travel alone, but where possible a live companion is recommended. Isolation during transportation was found to suppress feeding behaviour. Although peripheral blood flow (Tp) has been used to assess transport stress in other species it has not previously been used in the horse. Further evaluation of this non-invasive measure is now required.
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Rogers, L. J. (2010). Relevance of brain and behavioural lateralization to animal welfare. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 127(1-2), 1–11.
Abstract: The left and right sides of the brain are specialised to process information in different ways and to control different categories of behaviour. Research on a range of species has shown that the left hemisphere controls well-established patterns of behaviour performed in non-stressful situations, whereas the right hemisphere responds to unexpected stimuli and controls escape and other emergency responses. The known functions of each hemisphere are summarised in this paper. Then it is hypothesised that stressed animals rely on predominant use of the right hemisphere, and that a bias to use the right or left hemisphere, respectively, may explain the behavioural differences between animals with a negative cognitive bias and those with a positive cognitive bias. In some species of primates it has been shown that the preferred limb used to pick up food when the animal is in a relaxed state reflects the dominant hemisphere and may be an accessible measure indicating susceptibility to stress and tendency towards positive versus negative cognitive bias. Hence, limb preference might be a useful measure of such tendencies in domesticated species. Some difficulties in determining a relevant measure of limb preference in non-primate species are mentioned, followed by the suggestion that eye preferences for viewing certain stimuli may be a useful measure in species with laterally placed eyes. Finally, effects of experience on the development of hemispheric dominance are discussed, leading to a suggestion that the welfare of domestic animals may be enhanced by ensuring development of left hemisphere dominance (e.g. by exposing chick embryos to light) and by shifting right to left hemisphere dominance in animals with negative cognitive bias.
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Schultheiss, O. C., Riebel, K., & Jones, N. M. (2009). Activity inhibition: A predictor of lateralized brain function during stress? Neuropsychology, 23(3), 392–404.
Abstract: The authors tested the hypothesis that activity inhibition (AI), a measure of the frequency of the word “not” in written material, marks a propensity to engage functions of the right hemisphere (RH) and disengage functions of the left hemisphere (LH), particularly during stress. Study 1 and Study 2 showed that high AI predicts faster detection of stimuli presented to the RH, relative to the LH. Study 2 provided evidence that the AI-laterality effect is specific to perceptual, but not motor, laterality and that it is particularly strong in individuals with low mood, but absent in individuals in a positive mood state. Study 3 showed that negative affective stimuli prime the AI-laterality effect more strongly than positive affective stimuli. Findings from Study 4 suggest that situationally induced frustration (losing a contest), in conjunction with high AI, leads to increased attentional laterality. The present findings substantially bolster the construct validity of AI and contribute to a better understanding of earlier findings linking AI to physiological stress responses, immune system functioning, alcohol abuse, and nonverbal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
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Peeters, M., Sulon, J., Beckers, J. - F., Ledoux, D., & Vandenheede, M. (2011). Comparison between blood serum and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses using an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge. Equine Veterinary Journal, 43(4), 487–493.
Abstract: Reasons for performing study: In horses, serum cortisol concentration is considered to provide an indirect measurement of stress. However, it includes both free and bound fractions. The sampling method is also invasive and often stressful. This is not the case for salivary cortisol, which is collected using a more welfare-friendly method and represents a part of the free cortisol fraction, which is the biologically active form. Objectives: To compare salivary and serum cortisol assays in horses, in a wide range of concentrations, using an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test, in order to validate salivary cortisol for stress assessment in horse. Methods: In 5 horses, blood samples were drawn using an i.v. catheter. Saliva samples were taken using swabs. Cortisol was assayed by radioimmunoassay. All data were treated with a regression method, which pools and analyses data from multiple subjects for linear analysis. Results: Mean ± s.d. cortisol concentrations measured at rest were 188.81 ± 51.46 nmol/l in serum and 1.19 ± 0.54 nmol/l in saliva. They started increasing immediately after ACTH injection and peaks were reached after 96 ± 16.7 min in serum (356.98 ± 55.29 nmol/l) and after 124 ± 8.9 min in saliva (21.79 ± 7.74 nmol/l, P<0.05). Discharge percentages were also different (225% in serum and 2150% in saliva, P<0.05). Correlation between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations showed an adjusted r2= 0.80 (P<0.001). The strong link between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations was also estimated by a regression analysis. Conclusions: The reliability of both RIAs and regression found between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations permits the validation of saliva-sampling as a noninvasive technique for cortisol level assessment in horses.
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Cassinello, J., & Pieters, I. (2000). Multi-male captive groups of endangered dama gazelle: Social rank, aggression, and enclosure effects. Zoo Biol., 19(2), 121–129.
Abstract: A study carried out in four multi-male groups of captive dama gazelle (Gazella dama mhorr) characterized the social rank order of males and possible enclosure effects on aggression rate. A strong relationship between rank and age was found. The results also showed that dominant individuals in the two smallest enclosures were more aggressive than their herdmates, suggesting a more stressful environment, which might precipitate unstable or challenged hierarchies when the animals live in a more restricted enclosure. Subordinate males performed submissive responses at a higher frequency, irrespective of the size of the enclosure. The frequency of interactions between the gazelles, on the other hand, was affected by enclosure size, since high-ranking males showed higher values than low-ranking males in the two smallest enclosures. Frequencies of aggressive acts, retreats, and related interactions were similar in all the herds. Implications for the management of the species in captivity are discussed. Zoo Biol 19:121–129, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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