|
|
de Waal, F. B. (2000). Primates--A natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science, 289(5479), 586–590.
Abstract: The traditional notion of aggression as an antisocial instinct is being replaced by a framework that considers it a tool of competition and negotiation. When survival depends on mutual assistance, the expression of aggression is constrained by the need to maintain beneficial relationships. Moreover, evolution has produced ways of countering its disruptive consequences. For example, chimpanzees kiss and embrace after fights, and other nonhuman primates engage in similar “reconciliations.” Theoretical developments in this field carry implications for human aggression research. From families to high schools, aggressive conflict is subject to the same constraints known of cooperative animal societies. It is only when social relationships are valued that one can expect the full complement of natural checks and balances.
|
|
|
|
Boyd, L. (1986). Behavior problems of equids in zoos. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 653–664.
Abstract: Behavior problems in zoo equids commonly result from a failure to provide for needs basic to equine nature. Equids are gregarious, and failure to provide companions may result in pacing. Wild equids spend 60 to 70 per cent of their time grazing, and failure to provide ad libitum roughage contributes to the problems of pacing, cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia. Mimicking the normal processes of juvenile dispersal, bachelor-herd formation, and mate acquisition reduces the likelihood of agonistic and reproductive behavior problems. Infanticide can be avoided by introducing new stallions to herds containing only nonpregnant mares and older foals.
|
|
|
|
Burden, F., & Trawford, A. (2006). Equine interspecies aggression Comment on (Vol. 159).
|
|
|
|
Mitman, G. (1990). Dominance, leadership, and aggression: animal behavior studies during the Second World War. J Hist Behav Sci, 26(1), 3–16.
Abstract: During the decade surrounding the Second World War, an extensive literature on the biological and psychological basis of aggression surfaced in America, a literature that in general emphasized the significance of learning and environment in the origins of aggressive behavior. Focusing on the animal behavior research of Warder Clyde Allee and John Paul Scott, this paper examines the complex interplay among conceptual, institutional, and societal forces that created and shaped a discourse on the subjects of aggression, dominance, and leadership within the context of World War II. The distinctions made between sexual and social dominance during this period, distinctions accentuated by the threat of totalitarianism abroad, and the varying ways that interpretations of behavior could be negotiated attests to the multiplicity of interactions that influence the development of scientific research.
|
|
|
|
Hrdy, S. B. (1974). Male-male competition and infanticide among the langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan. Folia Primatol (Basel), 22(1), 19–58.
|
|
|
|
Saayman, G. S. (1971). Behaviour of the adult males in a troop of free-ranging Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). Folia Primatol (Basel), 15(1), 36–57.
|
|
|
|
Berger, J. (1983). Induced abortion and social factors in wild horses. Nature, 303(5912), 59–61.
Abstract: Much evidence now suggests that the postnatal killing of young in primates and carnivores, and induced abortions in some rodents, are evolved traits exerting strong selective pressures on adult male and female behaviour. Among ungulates it is perplexing that either no species have developed convergent tactics or that these behaviours are not reported, especially as ungulates have social systems similar to those of members of the above groups. Only in captive horses (Equus caballus) has infant killing been reported. It has been estimated that 40,000 wild horses live in remote areas of the Great Basin Desert of North America (US Department of Interior (Bureau of Land Management), unpublished report), where they occur in harems (females and young) defended by males. Here I present evidence that, rather than killing infants directly, invading males induce abortions in females unprotected by their resident stallions and these females are then inseminated by the new males.
|
|
|
|
Flauger, B., Möstl, E., & Krueger., K. (2012). The introduction of horses into new groups: Social interactions and cortisol release. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Domestic horses are kept in so-called “fate societies” where they have to deal with frequent mixing. Several studies have evaluated and discussed the aggression level and injury risk during the introduction of horses into new groups, but nothing is known about the endocrine responses and thus if horses experience stress during introduction.
In this study we analysed the efficiency of four approved introduction techniques and evaluated the introduction of 30 horses into 11 different groups. Horses were introduced: 1) immediately, 2) after observing the new group for several days, 3) together with an “integration horse” after several days of observation, or 4) with a mixed strategy. Aggressive as well as positive social behaviour between the introduced horses and the group members were analysed the two hours following the introduction event. In addition, we focussed on the glucocorticoid production of the newcomer horses by measuring faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) on the day of the introduction as well as the following three days.
For the four introduction techniques we found significant differences in the horses’ aggressive and submissive behaviour as well as in their total interactions. The introduction together with an integration horse led to significantly lower levels of aggression and less total interactions than the immediate introduction of single horses.
Horses which were introduced immediately or after an observation period showed significantly elevated levels of FCM on the first, second and third day after the introduction. For horses introduced together with an integration horse FCM were already significantly higher on the day of the introduction, indicating a stressful event before the introduction itself. In contrast, FCM levels were always very low when using the mixed technique.
In sum, horses have the ability to deal with conflict when they are introduced to new group members. The introduction event itself appears not to be as stressful as previously assumed. Standing together with an “integration horse” on a separate paddock and not being able to integrate immediately into a new group appears to be stressful for the newcomer. Based on the findings of our study we suggest to introduce new horses in group management together with a new group mate, a so-called “integration horse”. This would reduce the number of total social interactions as well as the aggression level. While this technique may be stressful for the newcomer, it lowers aggressive behaviour between the introduced horse and the group members and consequently reduces injury risks.
|
|
|
|
Obergfell, J. (2012). Einf lus s v on St ruktur e l ement en auf da s Li eg ev e rha l t en v on Pf e rden in Gruppenha l tung unt e r Be rücks i cht igung de s Ag g r e s s i ons v e rha l t ens. Ph.D. thesis, , Karlsruhe.
Abstract: Durch die vorliegende Studie wurde der Einfluss von Strukturelementen auf das Liege- und Aggressionsverhalten von Pferden in Gruppenhaltung untersucht. Die Strukturelemente sollten Rückzugsmöglichkeiten bieten, sowie in ihrem Bereich zur Aufhebung der Individualdistanz führen und dadurch die Fläche relativ vergrößern. Für die Versuche stellte das Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach drei unabhängige Pferdegruppen mit verschiedener Herdengröße zur Verfügung, die jeweils in Einraum- Innenlaufställen gehalten wurden. Die Datenerfassung fand zwischen 23 und sieben Uhr statt. Insgesamt wurden 366 Stunden Videomaterial ausgewertet. Beim Ruheverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling- Verfahrens die Parameter Gesamtliegedauer, Dauer in Seitenlage, Dauer der Einzelphasen in
Seitenlage und Abliegehäufigkeit pro Nacht erfasst. Es wurden Versuchsphasen ohne
Strukturelemente und mit hängenden Planen als Strukturierung durchgeführt. Im ersten Stall
kamen außerdem über einander gestapelte Strohballen zum Einsatz. Diese Art der
Strukturierung stellte sich jedoch als nicht praktikabel heraus und führte im Vergleich zu den Planen zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung der Gesamtliegedauer. In Stall 1 konnte man eine tendenzielle Verbesserung der Parameter Gesamtliegedauer und Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage durch das Anbringen von Planen sehen. In Stall 3 dagegen verschlechterte sich das Ruheverhalten in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen gegenüber den Versuchsphasen ohne Struktur. Die Werte der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage nahmen signifikant ab. In Stall 2 zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Möglicherweise ist die Wirkung der Strukturelemente auf das Liegeverhalten abhängig von der Flächengröße. Stall 1 hatte bezogen auf die Leitlinien des BMELV die größte und Stall 3 die kleinste Fläche. Bei den anderen Parametern des Liegeverhaltens gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Mit Hilfe des time-sampling-Verfahrens wurde die Anzahl gleichzeitig liegender Pferde und gleichzeitig liegender Pferde in Seitenlage bestimmt. Auch hier zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Bei der Gegenüberstellung der Werte der Gesamtliegedauer und der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage mit dem Alter der Pferde (Stall 1 und Stall 3) und mit dem Integrationszeitpunkt (Stall 1) konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Beim Aggressionsverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des
event-sampling-Verfahrens in den Ställen 2 und 3 verschiedene Arten von Aggressionen
erfasst, die dann in die drei Intensitätsgrade Low-Level-, Mid-Level- und High-Level-
Aggressionen unterteilt wurden. Neben der Anzahl wurde die Dauer der verschiedenen
Aggressionen bewertet. Insgesamt konnte eine positive Wirkung der Planen auf das
Aggressionsverhalten beobachtet werden. Die Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen nahm in beiden
Ställen tendenziell in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen ab. In Stall 3 konnte, wenn man die
Aggressionen stundenweise betrachtet, ein signifikanter Unterschied festgestellt werden.
Auch der Hinterhandschlag und die Aggressionen, welche das Ruheverhalten stören,
verringerten sich tendenziell nach dem Anbringen von Strukturelementen. In beiden Ställen
nahm die relative Häufigkeit von Mid-Level-Aggressionen nach dem Anbringen von Planen
zu. Dagegen konnte bei den High-Level-Aggressionen und in Stall 3 bei den Low-Level-
Aggressionen eine relative Abnahme beobachtet werden. Sowohl die Anzahl als auch die
Dauer der Mid-Level-Aggressionen verringerten sich in Stall 3 stundenweise betrachtet
signifikant in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen. In Stall 2 war bei den High-Level-
Aggressionen sowohl bei der Dauer als auch bei der Anzahl eine signifikante Abnahme zu
sehen. Wenn man das Aggressionsverhalten in Bezug zu der Fläche in den zwei Ställen
betrachtet, schien diese vor allem einen Einfluss auf die High-Level-Aggressionen zu
nehmen. Mit Hilfe des Rangindex der Pferde im Stall 3 wurde eine Rangordnung aufgestellt.
Zwischen dem Platz der Pferde in der Rangordnung und den Parametern des Ruheverhaltens
(Gesamtliegedauer, Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage) sowie dem Alter der Pferde konnte kein
Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Zwischen dem Rangindex und der Gesamtanzahl an
Aggressionen bestand dagegen ein hoch signifikanter Zusammenhang. Im Rahmen dieser
Studie ist das Anbringen von Strukturelementen in Bezug auf das Aggressionsverhalten in
Einraum-Innenlaufställen von Pferden zu empfehlen. Die Wirkung auf das Liegeverhalten der
Pferde sollte in weiteren Studien untersucht werden.
[In this study the influence of structural elements on lying and aggression behavior in horses
kept in groups was exanimated. Structural elements should offer the possibility of retreat.
Furthermore, within the respective area, the individual distance should be limited, thus
increasing the overall space relatively. For the studies the “Haupt- und Landesgestüt
Marbach” provided three non-related groups of different sized horses, each kept in separate
“Einraum-Innenlaufställen”. Data collection took place between 11 pm and 7 am. Altogether,
366 hours of video material were analyzed. Using the event-sampling-method, the following
parameters within the horses´ resting behavior were determined: The total lying period, the
total lying period in lateral position, the periods of the single lying in lateral position and the
frequency of lying down. Test phases were carried out without structural elements and with
hanging canvases as structural elements. In the first stable there were also three bales of straw
piled up on top of each other. This kind of structuring emerged as impractical and in
comparison to the canvas, led to a significant deterioration to the total period of lying. After
the canvases were fixed in the first stable, a slight improvement with the parameters of total
lying period and total lying period in the lateral position could be seen. In contrast, the resting
behavior in stable 3 worsened in the test phases with the canvases in comparison to the test phases without structural elements. The values for the total lying period in the lateral position
decreased significantly. In stable 2, there were no differences in the different test phases.
Possibly the effect of the structural elements is dependent of the space. Stable 1 had the
largest space and stable 3 the least space referred to the guideline of the BMELV. The other
parameters of the lying behavior showed no significant differences in the different test phases.
The number of horses lying at the same time, and the number of horses lying at the same time
in the lateral position were detected with the aid of the time-sampling-method. There were
also no differences between the different test phases. If the values of the total lying period and
the total lying period in lateral position were compared to the age of the horses (stable 1 and
stable 3) and to the point of integration (stable 1), there was no correlation.
Different kinds of aggression were detected by the means of the event-sampling-method in
stable 2 and 3 and were subdivided into the three levels of intensity: Low-level-, mid-level
and high-level-aggressions. Both the number and the duration of the different aggressions
were evaluated. All in all a positive influence of the canvas on the aggression behavior could
be observed. In both stables, the total number of aggressions decreased in the test phases with
canvases. In stable 3 a significant difference could be detected, if the aggressions were
observed per hour. Also hind limb kicks and aggressions disturbing the resting behavior,
decreased by trend, after fixing the canvases in the stable. In both stables the relative
frequency of mid-level-aggressions increased after the canvases were mounted. In contrast
there was a relative decrease at the high-level-aggressions and in stable 3 at the low-levelaggressions.
The number and the duration of the mid-level-aggressions in stable 3 decreased,
when considered by the hour in the test phases with canvases. In stable 2 a significant
decrease in duration and number of high-level-aggressions was observed. When examining
aggression behavior in reference to space in the two stables, high-level-aggressions seemed to
be mostly influenced. In stable 3 a rank order was established with the aid of the rank index of
the horses. There was no correlation between the horses´ rank and the parameters of the
resting behavior (the total lying period, the total lying period in lateral position) and between
horses´ rank and age. In contrast, there was a high significant correlation between the rank
index and the total number of aggressions. In context to this study, structural elements in
“Einraum-Innenlaufställen” (BMELV 2009) seem to have a positive influence on the
aggression behavior and thus seem to be recommendable. The influence on the lying behavior
should be investigated in further studies.]
Keywords: Pferde, Ruheverhalten, Liegeverhalten, Aggressionsverhalten, Strukturelemente, Rangordnung [horses, rest behavior, lying behavior, aggression behavior, structural elements, rank order]
|
|
|
|
Zhang, T. - Y., Parent, C., Weaver, I., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Maternal programming of individual differences in defensive responses in the rat. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1032, 85–103.
Abstract: This paper describes the results of a series of studies showing that variations in mother-pup interactions program the development of individual differences in behavioral and endocrine stress responses in the rat. These effects are associated with altered expression of genes in brain regions, such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, that regulate the expression of stress responses. Studies from evolutionary biology suggest that such “maternal effects” are common and often associated with variations in the quality of the maternal environment. Together these findings suggest an epigenetic process whereby the experience of the mother alters the nature of the parent-offspring interactions and thus the phenotype of the offspring.
|
|
