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Knopff, K., & Pavelka, M. (2006). Feeding Competition and Group Size in Alouatta pigra. Int. J. Primatol., 27(4), 1059–1078.
Abstract: Researchers consider group size in primates to be determined by complex relationships among numerous ecological forces. Antipredator benefits and better resource defense are the primary pressures for large groups. Conversely, intragroup limited food availability, can result in greater intragroup feeding competition and individual energy expenditure in larger groups, creating energetic advantages for individuals in small groups and placing an upper limit group size. However, the extent to which food availability constrains group size remains unclear for many species, including black howlers (Alouatta pigra), which ubiquitously live in small social groups (≤10 individuals). We studied the relationship between group size and 2 key indices of feeding competition-day journey length and activity budgets in 3 groups of wild Alouatta pigra at a hurricane-damaged site in Belize, Central America. We controlled for differences in food availability between home ranges (food tree density) and compared both indicators of feeding competition directly with temporal variation in food availability for each group. Our results show no consistent association between resource availability, group size, and either index of competition, indicating that feeding competition does not limit group size at the site i.e., that larger groups can form without increased costs of feeding competition. The results support the search for other explanations, possibly social ones, for small group size in the primates, and we conclude with suggestions and evidence for such alternative explanations.
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Hrdy, S. B. (1974). Male-male competition and infanticide among the langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan. Folia Primatol (Basel), 22(1), 19–58.
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Mori, A., Iwamoto, T., & Bekele, A. (1997). A case of infanticide in a recently found gelada population in Arsi, Ethiopia. Primates, 38(1), 79–88.
Abstract: Abstract There have been no reports of infanticide in wild gelada baboons and it has been argued that infanticide is not necessary in geladas, since the birth interval of female gelada can be shortened after takeover of a unit by a new leader male without infanticide. However, we observed an instance of infanticide in a newly-found wild gelada population in the Arsi Region of Ethiopia. After a leader male of the unit was severely wounded by a leopard attack, he was quite weakened. The second male of the unit, a young adult male, became the leader of the unit three weeks later, but the former leader continued to stay in the unit as a second male. After a week, two other adult males joined the unit which, therefore, came to include four adult males. The infanticide took place nine days later. The perpetrator was one of the immigrant males and he showed great interest in the mother of the unweaned victim infant. Although the perpetrator copulated with her after the infanticide, the usurper was found to own all three adult females after two weeks following the infanticide; i.e. the perpetrator could not own any female. The wounded former leader showed conspicuous protective behavior towards the victim's mother and the dead infant. One possible explanation for the occurrence of infanticide in this population of geladas is as follows. Gelada males in this area may be able to join units more easily to form multi-male units but then have shorter tenure in the units. Facing the unstable condition of units, they may sometimes engage in infanticide to increase their breeding opportunities, even before becoming a leader.
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Hayashi, M., & Matsuzawa, T. (2003). Cognitive development in object manipulation by infant chimpanzees. Anim. Cogn., 6(4), 225–233.
Abstract: This study focuses on the development of spontaneous object manipulation in three infant chimpanzees during their first 2 years of life. The three infants were raised by their biological mothers who lived among a group of chimpanzees. A human tester conducted a series of cognitive tests in a triadic situation where mothers collaborated with the researcher during the testing of the infants. Four tasks were presented, taken from normative studies of cognitive development of Japanese infants: inserting objects into corresponding holes in a box, seriating nesting cups, inserting variously shaped objects into corresponding holes in a template, and stacking up wooden blocks. The mothers had already acquired skills to perform these manipulation tasks. The infants were free to observe the mothers' manipulative behavior from immediately after birth. We focused on object-object combinations that were made spontaneously by the infant chimpanzees, without providing food reinforcement for any specific behavior that the infants performed. The three main findings can be summarized as follows. First, there was precocious appearance of object-object combination in infant chimpanzees: the age of onset (8-11 months) was comparable to that in humans (around 10 months old). Second, object-object combinations in chimpanzees remained at a low frequency between 11 and 16 months, then increased dramatically at the age of approximately 1.5 years. At the same time, the accuracy of these object-object combinations also increased. Third, chimpanzee infants showed inserting behavior frequently and from an early age but they did not exhibit stacking behavior during their first 2 years of life, in clear contrast to human data.
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Yamada, T., Rojanasuphot, S., Takagi, M., Wungkobkiat, S., & Hirota, T. (1971). Studies on an epidemic of Japanese encephalitis in the northern region of Thailand in 1969 and 1970. Biken J, 14(3), 267–296.
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Manning, G. S., & Ratanarat, C. (1970). Fasciolopsis buski (Lankester, 1857) in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 19(4), 613–619.
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Menges, R. W., Furcolow, M. L., Selby, L. A., Habermann, R. T., & Smith, C. D. (1967). Ecologic studies of histoplasmosis. Am J Epidemiol, 85(1), 108–119.
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Ayres, C. M., Davey, L. M., & German, W. J. (1963). Cerebral Hydatidosis. Clinical Case Report With A Review Of Pathogenesis. J Neurosurg, 20, 371–377.
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Gallup, G. G. J. (1985). Do minds exist in species other than our own? Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 9(4), 631–641.
Abstract: An answer to the question of animal awareness depends on evidence, not intuition, anecdote, or debate. This paper examines some of the problems inherent in an analysis of animal awareness, and whether animals might be aware of being aware is offered as a more meaningful distinction. A framework is presented which can be used to make a determination about the extent to which other species have experiences similar to ours based on their ability to make inferences and attributions about mental states in others. The evidence from both humans and animals is consistent with the idea that the capacity to use experience to infer the experience of others is a byproduct of self-awareness.
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Linton, M. L. (1970). Washoe the chimpanzee. Science, 169(943), 328.
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