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Bradley, B. L. (1980). Animal flavor types and their specific uses in compound feeds by species and age. Fortschr Tierphysiol Tierernahr, (11), 110–122.
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Breen, M., Downs, P., Irvin, Z., & Bell, K. (1994). Intrageneric amplification of horse microsatellite markers with emphasis on the Przewalski's horse (E. przewalskii). Anim Genet, 25(6), 401–405.
Abstract: Primer sequences flanking 13 microsatellite loci isolated from the domestic horse (E. caballus) were successfully used to amplify homologous loci in the Przewalski's horse (E. przewalskii). The results demonstrate that the level of polymorphism at all 13 loci in the Przewalski's horse was comparable to that in the domestic horse and the overall exclusion probability in the Przewalski's horse was calculated to be 0.9994. The results suggest that it should be possible to use E. caballus-derived microsatellite markers to provide parentage verification and additional valuable information to the captive management of E. przewalskii. The ability to amplify corresponding loci in the remaining five species of the genus was also confirmed, illustrating the general application of markers isolated from the domestic horse to the evaluation of polymorphism in the other six species of the genus.
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Brinkmann, L., Gerken, M., & Riek, A. (2013). Effect of long-term feed restriction on the health status and welfare of a robust horse breed, the Shetland pony (Equus ferus caballus). Res. Vet. Sci., 94(3), 826–831.
Abstract: Outdoor group housing is increasingly recognized as an appropriate housing system for domesticated horses. The objective of this study was therefore to investigate the effect of potential feed shortage in semi-natural horse keeping systems in winter on animal health and welfare. In 10 female Shetland ponies blood concentrations (NEFA, total protein (TP), total bilirubin (TB), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and thyroxine (T4)), body mass and the body condition score (BCS) were monitored for 7months including a 4months period of feed restriction in five of the 10 ponies. Restrictively fed animals lost 18.4±2.99% of their body mass and the BCS decreased by 2.2±0.8 points (BCS scale: 0=emaciated, 5=obese). Feed restriction led to a continuous increase in TB (P<0.001) and NEFA (P<0.01) concentrations compared to control ponies. The TP and BHB values only differed at the end of the trial with lower concentrations in restricted fed mares (P<0.05). Feed restriction had no effect on thyroxine concentrations. TB concentrations in the feed restricted group were out of the reference range during the entire feeding trial. The increased NEFA concentrations in feed restricted compared to control ponies suggest that fat was mobilized. The BCS, as well as plasma NEFA and TB concentrations were good indicators for a rapid detection of possible health problems caused by undernourishment in horses when kept under semi-natural conditions. In contrast, blood parameters of the control animals were within the reference ranges, suggesting that a year round outdoor housing with additional feed supply is an adequate housing system for a robust horse breed like the Shetland pony.
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Brown, R. F., Houpt, K. A., & Schryver, H. F. (1976). Stimulation of food intake in horses by diazepam and promazine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 5(4), 495–497.
Abstract: In two adult horses doses of 0.02-0.03 mg/kg diazepam, intravenously, increased 1 hr intake 54-75% above control levels. Intake was stimulated when the diet was a high grain, calorically dense one and also when the diet was a high fiber, calorically dilute one. Two young rapidly growing weanling horses showed an even more pronounced stimulation of intake. Following diazepam 1 hr intake was increased 105-240% above control lelvels. Promazine at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg also stimulated intake in adult horses, but not as markedly as did diazepam. A transquilizer and a neuroleptic appear to have a stimulatory eff upon short-term intake in horses.
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Brubaker, L., & Udell, M. A. R. (2016). Cognition and learning in horses (Equus caballus): What we know and why we should ask more. Behavioural Processes, 126, 121–131.
Abstract: Abstract Horses (Equus caballus) have a rich history in their relationship with humans. Across different cultures and eras they have been utilized for work, show, cultural rituals, consumption, therapy, and companionship and continue to serve in many of these roles today. As one of the most commonly trained domestic animals, understanding how horses learn and how their relationship with humans and other horses impacts their ability to learn has implications for horse welfare, training, husbandry and management. Given that unlike dogs and cats, domesticated horses have evolved from prey animals, the horse-human relationship poses interesting and unique scientific questions of theoretical value. There is still much to be learned about the cognition and behaviour of horses from a scientific perspective. This review explores current research within three related areas of horse cognition: human-horse interactions, social learning and independent learning in horses. Research on these topics is summarized and suggestions for future research are provided.
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Buchner, H. H. F., Obermuller, S., & Scheidl, M. (2000). Body Centre of Mass Movement in the Sound Horse. The Veterinary Journal, 160(3), 225–234.
Abstract: The body centre of mass (BCM) is a key factor in the analysis of equine locomotion, as its position and movement determines the distribution and magnitude of loads on the limbs. In this study, the three-dimensional (3D) movement of the BCM in walking and trotting horses was assessed using a kinematic, segmental method. Thirty markers representing 20 body segments were recorded in 12 sound horses while standing, walking and trotting on a treadmill using a high-speed video system. Based on segmental inertial data, 3D positions of the segmental centres of mass as well as the total BCM were calculated. The position within the trunk during square standing and the movements of the BCM were determined for the three planes. The position of the BCM in the standing horse is presented relative to external reference points. At the trot, vertical displacement amplitude of the BCM amounted to 53 (6) mm as mean (sd), which was 27% smaller than external trunk movement. Medio-lateral displacement amplitude of the BCM was 19 (4) mm, 34% less than trunk amplitude. Sagittal forward-backward oscillations of the BCM independent from general forward movement were 13 (3) mm, being 24% less than trunk movements. At the walk, vertical, medio-lateral and sagittal BCM movements were smaller than trunk movements by 43, 65 and 65% respectively. The results show reduced and efficient BCM movements compared to the trunk and form a basis for the assessment of various clinical conditions such as lameness, the influence of a rider and various dressage performances.
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Budras, K. D., Scheibe, K., Patan, B., Streich, W. J., & Kim, K. (2001). Laminitis in Przewalski horses kept in a semireserve. J Vet Sci, 2(1), 1–7.
Abstract: Semireserves were created by the European Conservation Project for scientific research in preparation for reintroduction in the wilderness. They are defined as enclosures large enough to carry a group of Przewalski horses throughout the year without any additional feeding. The semireserve offers diverse opportunities for significant scientific research. As part of a general screening program, the hoof development in a group of Przewalski horses was investigated in the semireserve Schorfheide near Berlin. Since the foundation of this semireserve in 1992, veterinary treatment was not necessary with the exception of hoof trimming in two animals in 1993. However, major health problems were encountered in the spring of 1999, when three other mares showed signs of laminitis. The initial diagnosis by the authors and the local veterinary surgeon based on observation of behaviour, gait, stance, walk and trot of three mares whose initial weights were higher than those of the healthy mares. The initial diagnosis was confirmed by palpation and the occurrence of very deep horn rings on all hooves and a laminitic horn ring on the right front hoof of one mare. An adequate laminitic therapy was not possible under the conditions of a semireserve. The applied management aimed at two goals: 1. To reduce endotoxin production and acidosis in the horses by reducing the ingestion of carbohydrate rich food. 2. To reduce the mares level of activity and to prevent tearing of the suspensory apparatus of the coffin bone. To achieve these two goals it was decided to remove the three laminitic mares from the rich pasture in the main part of the semireserve and to confine them onto the poorer pasture of the small separately fenced area. All three affected mares had fully recovered from their laminitic condition. Prevention of grass laminitis can be achieved by the following measures: 1. Reduction in grass intake could be achieved by increasing the grazing pressure by an increase in stocking rate of the horses or mixed grazing with another species such as sheep. 2. A longer term solution to the problem may well be to sow specific varieties of grass with lower concentrations of water soluble carbohydrate.
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Burla, J. - B., Ostertag, A., Schulze Westerath Niklaus, H., & Hillmann, E. (2012). Validation of the MSR145W Data Logger for Gait Determination in Horses (Equus caballus). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Group housed horses at a stud farm/riding stable in Belgium were observed on 17 days between 21 February and 25 April 2008, totalling 54hr25min of detailed data. The original group consisted of 8 Irish Cob mares, 1 Warmblood mare, 1 Arabian gelding and 2 Arabian mares. The group had been established in December 2007. During the course of the study 5 horses were removed from the group and 2 foals were born. 3 highly pregnant mares were housed adjacent to the group for part of the period. Horses were regularly used for lessons. Available surface area differed with the group on pasture at the end. Continuous all occurrence sampling of 10 agonistic and 2 affiliative behaviours was carried out for all group members present. Overall the group showed a frequency of 44.75 agonistic interactions per hour and 11.25 affiliative per hour. Of those agonistic interactions 46.3% were threats while 47% were less active interactions (displacement, being avoided), leaving only 6.7% more aggressive interactions ( mainly biting, some kicking and chasing). The effect on acting agonistically was not significant for age (p=0.1591) and borderline significant for density (p=0.0627). The analysis of the frequency of affiliative interactions showed there is no significant effect of age (p=0.1865) or density (p=0.7923). Agonistic and affiliative interactions were not significantly correlated (p=0.72). Affiliative behaviour a horse received showed a borderline effect (p=0.0787) on agonistic behaviour, as did the interaction between received agonistic and affiliative interactions (p=0.0725). Received agonistic interactions had a borderline negative effect (p=0.0656) on affiliative behaviour. A dominance hierarchy was calculated based on agonistic interactions using Empirical Bayes’ estimates based on Poisson regression with random effects. Agonistic behaviour expressed to other horses was significantly effected by relative rank (p=0.0243). Overall horses tended to be 3.7 times more aggressive towards lower ranking horses compared to higher ranking horses. Affiliative behaviour shown to other horses was not significantly influenced by the rank of the social partner (p=0.7915). Some individuals did show a significant effect whereby they showed more affiliative behaviour towards lower ranking individuals. This study was a small project to look at a practical situation of riding horses being kept in group housing. The frequent changes in group composition and available surface made it possible to look at agonistic and affiliative interactions in such circumstances. This is useful as instability in group composition is often used as main reason not to keep horses in social groups. The results from this study showed a borderline effect of density on agonistic behaviour. In reality it was also influenced by practical details, like a narrow paddock with only 2 hay crates on the smallest surface. Rank in a dominance hierarchy, based on agonistic behaviour, had a significant effect on the agonistic behaviour expressed towards higher or lower ranking horses. No injuries or escalating fights were observed. This study shows it is possible to keep a group of riding horses in a social context without excessive aggression.
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Burns, T. E., & Clayton, H. M. (1997). Comparison of the temporal kinematics of the canter pirouette and collected canter. Equine Vet J Suppl, (23), 58–61.
Abstract: The objectives were to compare the temporal characteristics of canter pirouette strides with collected canter strides in elite dressage horses, and to determine whether the stride kinematics of the canter pirouettes fulfilled the requirements specified in the Federation Equestre Internationale Rules for Dressage Events. Eleven horses were videotaped (60 fields/s) during the individual medal competition at the 1992 Olympic Games. Temporal variables were extracted from the videotapes using standard methods. Two strides were analysed on each of the left and right leads and these were pooled to give mean values for the collected canter and the pirouettes. The pirouettes were completed in 4-9 strides, (mean of 6.4). In the collected canter strides, mean duration of the suspension was 0.013 s. There was no suspension in any of the pirouette strides, instead the stance phases of the leading forelimb and trailing hindlimb overlapped by a mean of 0.163 s. In 9 horses the trailing forelimb contacted the ground before the diagonal leading hindlimb in the collected canter, whereas in the pirouettes the leading hindlimb always made contact before the trailing forelimb (mean dissociation 0.164 s), giving the strides a distinct 4 beat rhythm. Due to increases in advanced placement between the diagonal limb pair and between the 2 forelimbs, the stride duration was longer in the pirouette (0.879 s) than the collected canter (0.629 s). It is concluded that the canter pirouette strides did not maintain the rhythm and timing of the the collected canter strides in any of the 11 horses.
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Bussières, G., Jacques, C., Lainay, O., Beauchamp, G., Leblond, A., Cadoré, J. - L., et al. (2008). Development of a composite orthopaedic pain scale in horses. Research in Veterinary Science, 85(2), 294–306.
Abstract: This study addresses development and validation of a composite multifactorial pain scale (CPS) in an experimental equine model of acute orthopaedic pain. Eighteen horses were allocated to control (sedation with/without epidural analgesia – mixture of morphine, ropivacaine, detomidine and ketamine) and experimental groups: amphotericin-B injection in the tarsocrural joint induced pain and analgesia was either i.v. phenylbutazone administered post-induction of synovitis, or pre-emptive epidural mixture, or a pre-emptive combination of the 2. Inter- and intra-observer reproducibility was good (0.8<K<1). The key specific and sensitive behavioural indices were response to palpation of the painful area, posture, and, of lesser value, pawing on the floor, kicking at abdomen and head movement. Of particular interest was the statistical correlation observed between the CPS and both non-invasive blood pressure (P<0.0001) and blood cortisol (P<0.002). This study established the value of some behavioural and physiological criteria in determining equine orthopaedic pain intensity and clearly demonstrated that pre-emptive, multimodal analgesia provided better management than the two other protocols tested.
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