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Goodwin, D. (1999). The importance of ethology in understanding the behaviour of the horse. Equine Vet J Suppl, (28), 15–19.
Abstract: Domestication has provided the horse with food, shelter, veterinary care and protection, allowing individuals an increased chance of survival. However, the restriction of movement, limited breeding opportunities and a requirement to expend energy, for the benefit of another species, conflict with the evolutionary processes which shaped the behaviour of its predecessors. The behaviour of the horse is defined by its niche as a social prey species but many of the traits which ensured the survival of its ancestors are difficult to accommodate in the domestic environment. There has been a long association between horses and man and many features of equine behaviour suggest a predisposition to interspecific cooperation. However, the importance of dominance in human understanding of social systems has tended to overemphasize its importance in the human-horse relationship. The evolving horse-human relationship from predation to companionship, has resulted in serial conflicts of interest for equine and human participants. Only by understanding the nature and origin of these conflicts can ethologists encourage equine management practices which minimise deleterious effects on the behaviour of the horse.
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Murray, R. C., Dyson, S. J., Tranquille, C., & Adams, V. (2006). Association of type of sport and performance level with anatomical site of orthopaedic injury diagnosis. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 411–416.
Abstract: REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Although anecdotal reports of increased orthopaedic injury risk in equine sports exist, there is little scientific evidence to support this. OBJECTIVES: To test whether horses undertaking a single competitive sport have increased risk of specific injuries compared to those used for general purpose riding (GP); and whether injury type varies with sport category and performance level. METHODS: Data from 1069 records of horses undergoing orthopaedic evaluation (1998-2003) and meeting inclusion criteria were reviewed. Sport category (GP, showjumping, dressage, eventing, racing), level (nonelite or elite) and diagnosis were recorded. Effects of sport category and level on probability of a specific diagnosis were assessed using chi-squared tests. Logistic regression was used to determine which competitive sports and levels increased risk of injury compared with GP. RESULTS: Overall there was a significant effect of sport category and level on diagnosis (P<0.0001). There was significant difference between anatomical site injured and sport category (P<0.0001); a high risk of forelimb superficial digital flexor tendon injury in elite eventing (P<0.0001) and elite showjumping (P = 0.02); distal deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) injury in elite showjumping (P = 0.002); and hindlimb suspensory ligament injury in elite (P<0.0001) and nonelite (P = 0.001) dressage. There was a low risk of tarsal injury in elite eventing (P = 0.01) and proximal DDFT injury in dressage (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Horses competing in different sports are predisposed to specific injuries; particular sports may increase the risk of injury at certain anatomical sites; and the type and site of injury may reflect the type and level of performance. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These findings could guide clinicians in the diagnosis of sport related injuries.
Keywords: Animals; Athletic Injuries/diagnosis/etiology/*veterinary; Bone and Bones/*injuries; Chi-Square Distribution; Diagnosis, Differential; Female; *Horses/injuries/physiology; Logistic Models; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*adverse effects/*physiology; Physical Examination/veterinary; Risk Factors; Sports
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Cayado, P., Munoz-Escassi, B., Dominguez, C., Manley, W., Olabarri, B., Sanchez de la Muela, M., et al. (2006). Hormone response to training and competition in athletic horses. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 274–278.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: It is recognised that the amount of psychological stress that an animal encounters determines the degree of response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In human athletes, the added emotive stress of competition is an important element in the adrenal response. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of show-jumping as well as dressage on stress levels by comparing horses' stress response at a horse show compared to their familiar home. METHODS: Fifty-one horses involved in competition were used. EDTA blood samples were collected before exercise, upon arrived to the schooling area (control), and k over a jump or dressage course. After sampling, plasma was separated and stored at -80 degrees C until determinations of cortisol and ACTH were performed. Fourteen healthy horses not involved in competition were used as control group. RESULTS: Competition induced a significant increase in cortisol and ACTH responses in both, jumping and dressage horses and this effect was more apparent in dressage horses. When horses were most experienced, cortisol and ACTH responses were much lower. CONCLUSION: This study shows that competition elicits a classic physiological stress response in horses and that different training programmes induce different responses. It suggests that horses involved in competition can provide a good model to study the exercise-induced stress response.
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Odberg, F. O., & Bouissou, M. F. (1999). The development of equestrianism from the baroque period to the present day and its consequences for the welfare of horses. Equine Vet J Suppl, (28), 26–30.
Abstract: Many saddle horses are slaughtered at a young age which could be indicative of a welfare problem. Bad riding is probably an underestimated source of poor welfare. Widespread knowledge of 'academic' riding should be encouraged and should be beneficial to all horses, at all schooling levels, for all purposes. In particular, 18th century principles tend to be forgotten and in this article the authors illustrate some differences to modern dressage. Various suggestions are made in order to improve welfare.
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Robinson, I. H. (1999). The human-horse relationship: how much do we know? Equine Vet J Suppl, (28), 42–45.
Abstract: Human relationships or interactions with horses have varied throughout history depending on human needs, but it is horses' ability to carry a human individual that has had perhaps the greatest impact on their relationship with man. Despite our long association with the horse, there have been few studies on human-horse relationships. There is little historical evidence on individual relationships with horses but indications of strong human-horse relationships have been noted in mounted societies, such as North American Plains Indians. Riding a horse has traditionally been associated with power, and was reserved for the ruling elite in many areas. Demographic data suggest that human relationships with horses may have changed in recent times. Although the lack of land and the relatively high cost of horse care may reduce the possibility of ownership for many people, the availability of riding establishments and increases in leisure time mean that riding is no longer restricted to the upper classes. There is a wide range in type and intensity of potential interactions with horses, indicating that human-horse relationships are likely to vary considerably. Some people appear to sacrifice a great deal in order to own a horse. However, the motivation behind these activities and the process by which an individual assesses personal costs of ownership versus their perceived benefits remains to be studied. Future research should focus on characterising the human-horse relationship, and the degree of individual and cultural variation. A greater understanding of horse owner perceptions of 'costs' versus 'benefits' may also increase our understanding of the relationship and the economic importance of horses in society.
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Houpt, K. A. (1986). Stable vices and trailer problems. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 623–633.
Abstract: Stable vices include oral vices such as cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia, as well as stall walking, weaving, pawing, and stall kicking. Some of these behaviors are escape behaviors; others are forms of self-stimulation. Most can be eliminated by pasturing rather than stall confinement. Trailering problems include failure to load, scrambling in the moving trailer, struggling in the stationary trailer, and refusal to unload. Gradual habituation to entering the trailer, the presence of another horse, or a change in trailer type can be used to treat these problems.
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Crowell-Davis, S. L., & Houpt, K. A. (1986). Maternal behavior. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 557–571.
Abstract: Parturition in mares is rapid and is followed by a brief period of sensitivity to imprinting on a foal. There is large individual variation in normal maternal style, but normal mothers actively defend their foal, remain near the foal when it is sleeping, tolerate or assist nursing, and do not injure their own foal. Disturbance of a mare and foal during the early imprinting period can predispose a mare to rejection of her foal; therefore, it should be avoided. There are a variety of forms of foal rejection and numerous etiologies. Therefore, each case should be evaluated individually.
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Crowell-Davis, S. L., & Houpt, K. A. (1986). Techniques for taking a behavioral history. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 507–518.
Abstract: A thorough behavioral history is essential for adequate assessment of a given case. In reviewing the chief complaint, a description of what actually happened, rather than the owner's interpretation of what happened, is required. Other behavior problems, environment, rearing history, and training need to be reviewed. Sample question sets for some common problems are given.
Keywords: Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Cooperative Behavior; *Horses; Maternal Behavior
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Boyd, L. (1986). Behavior problems of equids in zoos. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 653–664.
Abstract: Behavior problems in zoo equids commonly result from a failure to provide for needs basic to equine nature. Equids are gregarious, and failure to provide companions may result in pacing. Wild equids spend 60 to 70 per cent of their time grazing, and failure to provide ad libitum roughage contributes to the problems of pacing, cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia. Mimicking the normal processes of juvenile dispersal, bachelor-herd formation, and mate acquisition reduces the likelihood of agonistic and reproductive behavior problems. Infanticide can be avoided by introducing new stallions to herds containing only nonpregnant mares and older foals.
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Beaver, B. V. (1986). Aggressive behavior problems. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 635–644.
Abstract: Accurate diagnosis of the cause of aggression in horses is essential to determining the appropriate course of action. The affective forms of aggression include fear-induced, pain-induced, intermale, dominance, protective, maternal, learned, and redirected aggressions. Non-affective aggression includes play and sex-related forms. Irritable aggression and hypertestosteronism in mares are medical problems, whereas genetic factors, brain dysfunction, and self-mutilation are also concerns.
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