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de Waal, F. B., Aureli, F., & Judge, P. G. (2000). Coping with crowding. Sci Am, 282(5), 76–81.
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Judge, P. G., & de Waal, F. B. (1994). Intergroup grooming relations between alpha females in a population of free-ranging rhesus macaques. Folia Primatol (Basel), 63(2), 63–70.
Abstract: Intergroup affiliation among female rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta, was examined in the captive free-ranging colony of Morgan Island, S.C., USA. The provisioned colony has many social groups (35) and is maintained at a relatively high population density (21 animals/ha) with a relatively low adult male to female ratio (1:8.8). Focal and ad libitum samples were collected on 32 adults (3 males and 29 females) from two groups. Although infrequent, grooming was observed between adult females from different groups, and alpha females were the main participants in these interactions. Colony records indicated that none of the intergroup grooms was between females formerly from a common group. Relations between familiar neighboring groups may be maintained by a combination of both affiliative and aggressive behavior.
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Judge, P. G., de Waal, F. B., Paul, K. S., & Gordon, T. P. (1994). Removal of a trauma-inflicting alpha matriline from a group of rhesus macaques to control severe wounding. Lab Anim Sci, 44(4), 344–350.
Abstract: Wounding in an 83-member group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) housed at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center Field Station became excessive to the point that intervention was deemed necessary. When observations indicated that three females from the group's alpha matriline were principally responsible for the wounding, the matriline (N = 7) was removed from the group. This study was conducted to document an atypical pattern of wounding in this group and to evaluate the effectiveness of removal as a procedure for controlling injuries. The aggression rates of 21 adult subjects and the wounds of all group members were recorded before and after the removal procedure and compared with those in a similar-sized group. Removing the alpha matriline did not alter aggression rates in the group or the rank order among the remaining matrilines. Aggression rates in the experimental group were also not significantly different from those in the comparison group before or after the removal. With the alpha matriline present, wounding levels in the group were significantly higher than those in the comparison group. After removal of the matriline, the frequency of wounds decreased significantly to levels similar to those of the comparison group. The pattern of excess wounding attributed to the extracted alpha females was idiosyncratic, involving removal of large patches of skin from the hindquarters of adult females or removal of the distal portion of the fingers, toes, or tail from juveniles.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Judge, P. G., & Mullen, S. H. (2005). Quadratic postconflict affiliation among bystanders in a hamadryas baboon group. Anim. Behav., 69(6), 1345–1355.
Abstract: The tendency in primate groups for two opponents to affiliate shortly after a fight has been described as dyadic reconciliation. The response has been shown to restore disrupted relationships and curtail ongoing aggression. Rates of self-directed behaviour (e.g. scratching) are positively correlated with anxiety in primates and the rates decline after reconciliation, indicating that the response also functions to reduce postconflict tension. Third parties not involved in an aggressive interaction are also likely to affiliate with one of the combatants subsequent to a fight. Such `triadic' interactions may also promote conflict resolution when, for instance, the relatives of a victim affiliate with their relative's aggressor. Because aggression in a group influences a bystander's behaviour with combatants, we hypothesized that aggression between two animals would also influence a bystander's behaviour with other bystanders. Such `quadratic' postconflict interactions might also function to reduce postconflict tension or occur in patterns among kin subgroups to resolve conflict. We tested for quadratic interactions in an 18-member group of captive hamadryas baboons, Papio hamadryas hamadryas. Immediately following a fight, an uninvolved bystander was randomly selected for observation and its affiliative interactions with other bystanders and its displacement activities were recorded for 3 min. Rates of behaviour during these postconflict periods were compared to rates during 3-min baseline periods not preceded by aggression. Bystanders engaged in quadratic interactions by increasing affiliation with other bystanders following aggression. Bystanders directed affiliation to nonkin bystanders that were their preferred social partners. Displacement activities of bystanders were significantly higher during postconflict intervals compared to baseline intervals, and bystander displacement activity levels before affiliative contact with other bystanders were significantly higher than after contact. Apparently, bystanders become tense or anxious after witnessing aggression and affiliate with preferred partners to reduce the arousal.
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Judge, P. G., & De Waa, l F. B. M. (1997). Rhesus monkey behaviour under diverse population densities: coping with long-term crowding. Anim. Behav., 54(3), 643–662.
Abstract: A popular view is that high population density promotes behavioural pathology, particularly increased aggression. In contrast, according to a coping model, some primates have behavioural mechanisms (e.g. formal displays, reconciliation and grooming) that regulate social tensions and control the negative consequences of crowding. Seven captive rhesus monkey groups, Macaca mulattawere observed over a wide range of population densities where high-density groups were over 2000 times more crowded than low-density free-ranging groups. As density increased, male rhesus monkeys increased grooming and huddling but did not increase rates of aggression. Females increased all categories of behaviour examined (heavy aggression, mild aggression, formal bared-teeth displays, grooming and huddling), but the increases were not distributed uniformly to all classes of partners. Females increased only grooming, huddling and appeasement displays to males, increased only aggression and huddling with kin and increased all categories of behaviour to non-kin adult females. There were no differences in the percentage of aggressive conflicts reconciled across density conditions. Increased density had different effects on particular relationships. Relationships between females and males were characterized by a coping pattern in which animals modified their behaviour in ways that may decrease aggression under crowded conditions. Female relationships with kin and non-kin were characterized by increases in both aggression and friendly interactions as density increased. The different patterns of response to higher density may reflect different strategies depending on the strength and stability of relationships and the potential consequences if certain relationships are disrupted.1997The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
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