Abstract: Developments in the scientific and philosophical study of animal cognition and mentality are of great importance to animal scientists who face continued public scrutiny of the treatment of animals in research and agriculture. Because beliefs about animal minds, animal cognition, and animal consciousness underlie many people's views about the ethical treatment of nonhuman animals, it has become increasingly difficult for animal scientists to avoid these issues. Animal scientists may learn from ethologists who study animal cognition and mentality from an evolutionary and comparative perspective and who are at the forefront of the development of naturalistic and laboratory techniques of observation and experimentation that are capable of revealing the cognitive and mental properties of nonhuman animals. Despite growing acceptance of the ethological study of animal cognition, there are critics who dispute the scientific validity of the field, especially when the topic is animal consciousness. Here, a proper understanding of developments in the philosophy of mind and the philosophy of science can help to place cognitive studies on a firm methodological and philosophical foundation. Ultimately, this is an interdisciplinary task, involving scientists and philosophers. Animal scientists are well-positioned to contribute to the study of animal cognition because they typically have access to a large pool of potential research subjects whose habitats are more controlled than in most field studies while being more natural than most laboratory psychology experiments. Despite some formidable questions remaining for analysis, the prospects for progress in assessing animal cognition are bright.

Abstract: Working animals provide an essential transport resource in developing countries worldwide. Many of these animals are owned by poor people and work in harsh environments, so their welfare is a cause for concern. A protocol was developed to assess the welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys in urban and peri-urban areas, using direct observation of health and behaviour parameters. In this study, 4903 animals used for draught, pack and ridden work in Afghanistan, Egypt, India, Jordan and Pakistan were assessed between December 2002 and April 2003. The data showed that donkeys were more likely than mules or horses to demonstrate avoidance or aggressive behaviour towards an observer, while horses were most likely to make a friendly approach. Fewer than 8% of working equines had abnormal mucous membranes, ectoparasites or poor coat condition. Body lesions occurred predominantly in the areas of the breast/shoulder, withers and girth in all three species, with mules having the highest prevalence of lesions in these areas (22.5, 21.3 and 28.4%, respectively). Among horses and donkeys, the prevalence of these lesions was influenced by the type of work carried out. Lesions on the head, neck, ribs, flank and tail base were seen in less than 10% of animals. Across all three species approximately 70% of animals were thin, having a body condition score (BCS) of 2 or less on a scale of 1-5 (1, very thin; 5, very fat) and more horses were in very thin condition (BCS 1) than mules or donkeys. Over 75% of animals demonstrated limb deformities and abnormalities of gait. The results of this study are being used as the initial stage of a long-term strategy to inform priorities for welfare interventions in working equines and to establish a welfare benchmark. Subsequent stages will rank the welfare concerns identified, assess the contributing risk factors and implement specific interventions to address these risks. Following intervention, success in improving welfare will be measured by repetition of this protocol and comparison with the benchmark.

Abstract: Abstract Facial flushing, a colour change caused by variation of blood flow through highly vascularized skin, has been observed in taxonomically diverse bird species but the function of the behaviour has not been assessed. Lappet-faced vultures, Aegypius tracheliotos, have unfeathered heads that can rapidly flush from pink to dark red, and this has been hypothesized to indicate contest ability in vulture gatherings. We show that adults with flushed heads won most interactions against those with pale heads. A previously unnoticed colour variation of the throat, visible only when the head is flushed, was also related to the outcome of interactions: blue-throated adults participated in, and won, more interactions than red-throated adults. We suggest that the non-fixed groups of which lappet-faced vulture populations consist promote the evolution of signals of dominance that can be adjusted extremely rapidly.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of training experience on young horses (Equus caballus)’ lateralized responses to an approaching human. The results show that the one year old untrained horses display asymmetrical responses to an approaching human, with more negative reactions (escapes, threats) when approached from the left side, while approaches towards the right shoulder elicited more positive behaviors. On the contrary, two years old trained horses reacted equally positively to approaches and contact on both sides. Our findings support those of previous studies investigating a link between emotionality and laterality and confirm the role of the left hemisphere in the processing of novel or negative stimuli. Moreover, the data underline the impact work and training can have on this laterality in horses.

Abstract: Having a radio playing during the daytime at some equine establishments is common practice, but few studies have investigated whether particular music genres could be enriching for stabled horses or whether they may be perceived as aversive. This study aimed to establish whether behavioural responses differed when exposed to musical genres (Classical, Country, Jazz and Rock) and when compared to a control (no music). Eight Thoroughbred geldings (age range 8-10 years, average 8.9 years) were exposed to four musical environments and the control environment (no music) and observed in their usual stable, using instantaneous focal sampling every thirty seconds according to a pre-determined ethogram. Each horse was exposed to each genre for an hour in total, at a time when there was no human traffic or interference on the yard. All horses had been stabled for three hours before the study began. The association between genres and behavioural frequencies recorded for each environment was tested using Fisher’s Exact test of association (P<0.01), IBM SPSS21. No statistically significant associations (P=1.0) were recorded between alert or relax behaviours in Country, Classical, and Control environments. Significant associations (P<0.001) between frequency of alert behaviours and Jazz and Rock environments were noted. The latter genres appeared the most aversive which may be due to fast tempo and minor key, especially in the Jazz piece used. Country and Classical genres were slow tempo with a major key and appeared to result in more restful behaviours than Jazz or Rock. Further research is needed to; assess whether music could be used as an enriching tool, and investigate equine emotional capabilities to understand the emotional effects of music. Future studies could also consider how music impacts upon the behaviour of the human handler and whether this influences equine behaviour.