| Abstract |
There is evidence that more than 47% of the sports horse population in normal work may be lame, but the lameness is not recognized by owners or trainers. An alternative means of detecting pain may be recognition of behavioral changes in ridden horses. It has been demonstrated that there are differences in facial expressions in nonlame and lame horses. The purpose of this study was to develop a whole horse ethogram for ridden horses and to determine whether it could be applied repeatedly by 1 observer (repeatability study, 9 horses) and if, by application of a related pain behavior score, lame horses (n = 24) and nonlame horses (n = 13) could be differentiated. It was hypothesized that there would be some overlap in pain behavior scores among nonlame and lame horses; and that overall, nonlame horses would have a lower pain behavior score than lame horses. The ethogram was developed with 117 behavioral markers, and the horses were graded twice in random order by a trained specialist using video footage. Overall, there was a good correlation between the 2 assessments (P < 0.001; R2 = 0.91). Behavioral markers that were not consistent across the 2 assessments were omitted, reducing the ethogram to 70 markers. The modified ethogram was applied to video recordings of the nonlame horses and lame horses (ethogram evaluation). There was a strong correlation between 20 behavioral markers and the presence of lameness. The ethogram was subsequently simplified to 24 behavioral markers, by the amalgamation of similar behaviors which scored similarly and by omission of markers which showed unreliable results in relation to lameness. Following this, the maximum individual occurrence score for lame horses was 14 (out of 24 possible markers), with a median and mean score of 9 (±2 standard deviation) compared with a maximum score of 6 for nonlame horses, with a median and mean score of 2 (±1.4). For lame horses, the following behaviors occurred significantly more (P < 0.05, chi-square): ears back, mouth opening, tongue out, change in eye posture and expression, going above the bit, head tossing, tilting the head, unwillingness to go, crookedness, hurrying, changing gait spontaneously, poor quality canter, resisting, and stumbling and toe dragging. Recognition of these features as potential indicators of musculoskeletal pain may enable earlier recognition of lameness and avoidance of punishment-based training. Further research is necessary to verify this new ethogram for assessment of pain in ridden horses. |
| Abstract |
In recent years, Przewalski’s horses have been increasingly kept in semi-reserves. However,there areonly few studies ontheir behaviour and their ability to adaptto management interventions.In the main part of my dissertation, I focus on investigatingthe animals’ behaviour in different semi-reserves with varyinghabitats and living spaces. In addition, I investigate the horses’ behaviour during various management interventionsand analysetheensuing changes instress levels. Another aspect of my dissertation is the studyof social behaviour inPrzewalski’s horses. I investigate theparameters that should be used to demonstrate social bonds between individualsandassess whichdata provide the most meaningful results.In the commentary tochapter 1,several studies investigatingsocial bonds in horsesare discussed. Comparing the various studies, it is strikingthat no homogeneous analyses orevaluation criteria exist. While some authors only considersocial grooming, others include data onthe spatial proximity of the individuals in their evaluations, and various definitionsof proximity can also be found in the literature. Additionally, someauthors use friendly approaches between individuals asa furtherparameter wheninvestigating the social bonds.Continuing with this theme, in chapter 2I investigate the social behaviour of the horses and compare various analysis methods. I show that proactive behaviour, such as friendly approaches, is a good alternative to spatial proximity when investigating social bonds between group members, andis also useful for expanding the often very small data sets of mutual grooming in horses. Comparing Przewalski’s horses with wild living horses, I found no significant differences in the social behavior and the frequency of social interactions, regardlessof group size, group composition, habitat, and individual parameters such as age and gender.Inchapter 3,I investigate the behaviour of a Przewalski’s horse group when exploring a new area of their enclosure. Their behaviour changed, showing less resting and more feeding. Furthermore, the animals maintained greater distances from each other, and the alpha male, instead of herding the group from behind, led the group around the new area and walked in front of the other group members. Moreover, he showed a substantial increase in stress level during the first day.A general comparison of the behaviour of the Przewalski’s horses in different semi-reserves is provided in chapter 4. In it, the habitat choice of the animals and their reactions to various management interventions are investigated. It is shown that Przewalski’s horses prefer open grassland to dense woods, although keeping Przewalski’s horses in a pine forest does not influence the animals’ stress level. In contrast to habitat, food range, and changes in the group composition, which do not appear to change stress levels, individual factors, such as the hierarchy, influence the glucocorticoid level of the animals significantly. The largest increases in stress hormones were demonstrated when the horses were temporarily confined in smaller areas.The importance of the available space is also discussed in chapter 5, where it is shown that horses show less aggressive behaviour when more space is provided. In contrast, the husbandry system does not influence the animals’ aggression, but the way of feeding can additionally reduce agonistic behaviour, for example if food is offered ad libitum.In summary, the results of this study provide indications for the optimization of keeping Przewalski’s horses in semi-reserves. The animals can adapt themselves to the environment and thrive in habitats which do not correspond to their original steppe-like home. Nevertheless, the semi-reserves should provide sufficient grassland, as the horses prefer this type of habitat. General speaking, any types of habitat can only offer a suitable living space if the food range is sufficient for the number of horses. Otherwise, and especially during could winter months, supplementary feeding is necessary according to the body condition of the animals. This is particularly important for older, weakened, or very young animals, which are still adapting to life in the semi-reserve. Without sufficient food, stress hormones can increase and negatively influence the well-being of the horses. The same is true for management interventions: restricting the animals to small enclosures, for example, can adversely affect the horses’ well-being and should be only done if absolutely necessary. Targetedbehaviour observations allow the animals that have a special meaning for the group to be identified, and these should not be taken out of the group unless it is unavoidable, as young and unexperienced horses orientate themselves on those animals. This is especially true for the alpha male in a bachelor group, as these groups are often composed of young horses and the alpha-male provides the necessary stability and experience. Social bonds between individuals can be investigated by observing friendly and proactive behaviour, and social grooming and friendly approaches yield suitable data for such analysis. |
