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| Author |
Tomasello, M.; Hare, B.; Fogleman, T. |
| Title |
The ontogeny of gaze following in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, and rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
61 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
335-343 |
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| Abstract |
Primates follow the gaze direction of conspecifics to outside objects. We followed the ontogeny of this social-cognitive skill for two species: rhesus macaques and chimpanzees. In the first two experiments, using both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design, we exposed individuals of different ages to a human looking in a specified direction. Rhesus infants first began reliably to follow the direction of this gaze at the end of the early infancy period, at about 5.5 months of age. Chimpanzees did not reliably follow human gaze until 3-4 years; this corresponds to the latter part of the late infancy period for this species. In the third experiment we exposed individuals of the same two species to a human repeatedly looking to the same location (with no special object at that location) to see if subjects would learn to ignore the looks. Only adults of the two species diminished their gaze-following behaviour over trials. This suggests that in the period between infancy and adulthood individuals of both species come to integrate their gaze-following skills with their more general social-cognitive knowledge about other animate beings and their behaviour, and so become able to deploy their gaze-following skills in a more flexible manner. |
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596 |
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Peake, T.M.; Terry, A.M.; McGregor, P.K.; Dabelsteen, T. |
| Title |
Male great tits eavesdrop on simulated male-to-male vocal interactions |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc Biol Sci |
| Volume |
268 |
Issue |
1472 |
Pages |
1183-1187 |
| Keywords |
Animals; Male; Songbirds/*physiology; *Vocalization, Animal |
| Abstract |
Animal communication generally occurs in the environment of a network of several potential signallers and receivers. Within a network environment, it is possible to gain relative information about conspecifics by eavesdropping on signalling interactions. We presented male great tits with the opportunity to gain such information by simulating singing interactions using two loudspeakers. Interactions were presented so that relevant information was not available in the absolute singing behaviour of either individual, only in the relative timing of their songs in the interaction as a whole. We then assayed the information extracted by focal males by subsequently introducing one of the 'interactants' (i.e. loudspeakers) into the territory of the focal male. Focal males responded with a reduced song output to males that had just 'lost' an interaction. Focal males did not respond significantly differently to 'winners' as compared with intruders recently involved in an interaction that contained no consistent information. Focal males also responded by switching song types more often when encountering males that had recently been involved in a low-intensity interaction. These results provide the clearest evidence yet that male songbirds extract information from signal interactions between conspecifics in the field. |
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Department of Animal Behaviour, Zoological Institute, Tagensvej 16, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark. tmpeake@zi.ku.dk |
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0962-8452 |
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PMID:11375107 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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712 |
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Zentall, T.R |
| Title |
Imitation In Animals: Evidence, Function, And Mechanisms |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
Cybernetics and Systems |
Abbreviated Journal |
Cybern Syst |
| Volume |
32 |
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53-96 |
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The terms sociallearning and social influence have been used descriptively and theoretically to characterize a broad range of animal behavior from physical antipredatory adaptations such as eye spots, which are totally under genetic control, to the human capacity for the exaggeration of individual characteristics, known as caricature, which are largely under cognitive control. In the present review, the various forms of social influence and social learning are identified and distinghished from imitation, a term that generally has been reserved for behavioral matching that cannot be accounted for using simpler specifically predisposed, motivational, or learning mechanisms. It is suggested that much of the ambiguity in the literature concerning the various forms of social learning can be attributed to the distinction between the function of a behavior and the mechanisms responsible for its occurrence. Finally, the various mechanisms that have been proposed to account for imitative learning are presented and an attempt is made to evaluate them. |
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747 |
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Bahloul, K.; Pereladova, O.B.; Soldatova, N.; Fisenko, G.; Sidorenko, E.; Sempere, A.J. |
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Social organization and dispersion of introduced kulans (Equus hemionus kulan) and Przewalski horses (Equus przewalski) in the Bukhara Reserve, Uzbekistan |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
Journal of Arid Environments |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Arid. Environ. |
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47 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
309-323 |
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Przewalski horses; kulans; Central Asia; home range; behaviour |
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Asiatic wild asses and Przewalski horses initially inhabited steppe, semi-desert and desert areas, but Przewalski horses became extinct in the wild, and kulans disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, except for a small population in Turkmenistan. The Bukhara Breeding Centre (Uzbekistan) was created in 1976 for reintroduction and conservation of wild ungulate species. In 1977-1978, five kulans (two males and three females), from Barsa-Kelmes island on the Aral sea, were introduced into the reserve. The group increased to 25-30 animals in 1989-1990, when eight Przewalski horses from Moscow and St Petersburg zoos were introduced. We analysed the home ranges, preferred habitats and social interactions of these closely related species during 1995-1998 by seasonal and group composition. Horses and asses formed a reproductive group and a secondary non-reproductive group. The home range of the secondary group was larger than the reproductive group and seemed to be less dependent from the watering places. Przewalski horses were less adapted to semi-desert conditions (both water and vegetation needs) than kulan. |
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777 |
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Koba, Y.; Tanida, H. |
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How do miniature pigs discriminate between people?: Discrimination between people wearing coveralls of the same colour |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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73 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
45-58 |
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Pigs; Learning; Recognition; Human-animal relationships |
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Seven experiments were conducted on four miniature pigs to determine: (1) whether the pigs can discriminate between people wearing the same coloured clothing; (2) what cues they rely on if they could discriminate. For 2 weeks before the experiments began, the pigs were conditioned in a Y-maze to receive raisins from the rewarder wearing dark blue coveralls. They were then given the opportunity to choose the rewarder or non-rewarder in these experiments. Each session consisted of 20 trials. Successful discrimination was that the pig chose the rewarder at least 15 times in 20 trials (P<0.05: by χ2-test). In Experiment 1, both rewarder and non-rewarder wore dark blue coveralls. By 20 sessions, all pigs successfully identified the rewarder. In Experiment 2: (1) both wore coveralls of the same new colours or (2) one of them wore coveralls of new colours. They significantly preferred the rewarder even though the rewarder and/or non-rewarder wore coveralls of new colours. In Experiment 3, both wore dark blue coveralls but olfactory cues were obscured and auditory cues were not given. The pigs were able to identify the rewarder successfully irrespective of changing auditory and olfactory cues. In Experiment 4, both wore dark blue coveralls but covered part of their face and body in different ways. The correct response rate decreased when a part of the face and the whole body of the rewarder and non-rewarder were covered. In Experiment 5, both wore dark blue coveralls and changed their apparent body size by shifting sitting position. The correct response rate increased as the difference in body size between the experimenters increased. In Experiment 6, the distance between the experimenters and the pig was increased by 30 cm increments. The correct response rate of each pig decreased as the experimenters receded from the pig, but performance varied among the pigs. In Experiment 7, the light intensity of the experimental room was reduced from 550 to 80 lx and then to 20 lx. The correct response rate of each pig decreased with the reduction in light intensity, but all the pigs discriminated the rewarder from the non-rewarder significantly even at 20 lx. In conclusion, the pigs were able to discriminate between people wearing coveralls of the same colour after sufficient reinforcement. These results indicate that pigs are capable of using visual cues to discriminate between people. |
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839 |
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Pongrácz, P.; Miklósi, Á.; Kubinyi, E.; Gurobi, K.; Topál, J.; Csányi, V. |
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Social learning in dogs: the effect of a human demonstrator on the performance of dogs in a detour task |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
62 |
Issue |
6 |
Pages |
1109-1117 |
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We recorded the behaviour of dogs in detour tests, in which an object (a favourite toy) or food was placed behind a V-shaped fence. Dogs were able to master this task; however, they did it more easily when they started from within the fence with the object placed outside it. Repeated detours starting from within the fence did not help the dogs to obtain the object more quickly if in a subsequent trial they started outside the fence with the object placed inside it. While six trials were not enough for the dogs to show significant improvement on their own in detouring the fence from outside, demonstration of this action by humans significantly improved the dogs' performance within two-three trials. Owners and strangers were equally effective as demonstrators. Our experiments show that dogs are able to rely on information provided by human action when confronted with a new task. While they did not copy the exact path of the human demonstrator, they easily adopted the detour behaviour shown by humans to reach their goal. |
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847 |
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Rybarczyk, P.; Koba, Y.; Rushen, J.; Tanida, H.; de Passille, A.M. |
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Can cows discriminate people by their faces? |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
74 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
175-189 |
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Dairy cows; Human-animal relationships; Discrimination; Learning; Facial recognition; Operant conditioning |
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This experiment examines the cues used by cattle to discriminate between people, particularly the role played by facial cues. We trained and tested eight Holstein cows 5 days each week for 2 months. For each cow, we used two people, a rewarder and a non-rewarder, of different size and dressed in overalls of the same colour. The operant chamber was a large box within which stood the two people. The cow could see, smell and touch each person. A lever was placed in front of each person. When the cow pushed the lever in front of the rewarder, it received 75 g of concentrate and nothing when it pushed on the other one. For each test session, the cows made 10 choices. The placement of the people was determined randomly according to the Gellerman series. The success criterion was defined as at least eight correct choices out of 10 trials for two consecutive sessions (binomial law P<0.003). During the shaping, seven cows out of eight learned to press the lever to obtain the food. The cows were then tested in a series of 10 trials with only the rewarder present. Seven out of seven cows succeeded in reaching the success criterion. In experiment 1, both the rewarder and the non-rewarder were present and standing upright at normal height and in full view of the cow. Five out of seven cows achieved the success criterion. In experiment 2, the cows could see only the faces of the two people. None of the cows were able to reach the success criterion. In experiment 3, both people were present standing up and wearing identical masks that completely covered their heads. Five cows out of five achieved the success criterion. In experiment 4, we changed the relative height of the people. Five cows out of five succeeded when the two people stood so they were of equal height but with their faces visible. However, no cows succeeded when the people were both of equal height and had their faces covered. This study suggests that cows seem to use multiple cues to discriminate between people. Cows appear able to use either body height or the face to discriminate between people but use of the face alone is more difficult when the cows cannot see the rest of the body. |
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849 |
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Albers, P.C.H.; de Vries, H. |
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Elo-rating as a tool in the sequential estimation of dominance strengths |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
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61 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
489-495 |
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858 |
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Jansen, W.L.; van Alphen, M.; Berghout, M.; Everts, H.; Beynen, A.C. |
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An approach to assessment of the efficiency of dietary energy utilization by horses and ponies kept at riding schools |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
The Veterinary quarterly |
Abbreviated Journal |
Vet Q |
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23 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
195-198 |
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*Animal Feed; Animal Husbandry; Animals; Body Weight; Dietary Fats; Dietary Fiber; *Energy Intake; *Energy Metabolism; Female; Horses/*physiology; Male |
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The ratio of calculated net energy intake (NEi) to calculate net energy requirement (NEr) might serve as an indicator of the efficiency of dietary energy utilization. The ratio was determined for 93 horses and ponies from 10 riding schools. For each animal with an assumed constant body weight, energy intake and energy requirements were assessed. On average, the estimated NEi was 14% greater than NEr. There was a significant, negative association between crude fibre intake and the NEi: NEr ratio. Earlier work indicated that extra fat intake may lead to over estimation of the calculated energy value of the ration due to changes in macronutrient digestibility. Dietary fat concentration was found to range from 32 to 52 g/kg dry matter (5 to 6 g/MJ net energy), but on the basis of digestibility trials this range in fat concentration is too small to significantly influence the NEi: NEr ratio. This study shows that assessment of the efficiency of dietary energy utilization under normal conditions, on the basis of the NEi: NEr ratio is fraught with uncertainty. |
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Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary, Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands |
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0165-2176 |
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PMID:11765239 |
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1807 |
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Henderson, J.V.; Warant, N.K. |
| Title |
Reducing Equine Stereotypies Using an Equiball |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
Publication |
Animal Welfare |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim Welfare |
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10 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
73-80 |
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NIMAL WELFARE; ENRICHMENT; EQUIBALLTRADE; HORSES; STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIOUR |
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It is believed that environmental enrichment techniques can play an important part in creating suitable captive environments for horses. There has, however, been little scientific investigation into the effectiveness of 'stable-toys' which claim to reduce the performance of equine stereotypies. This study investigated the effect of a foraging device known as 'The Equiball' on equine stereotypies. Six horses were given their evening feed in an Equiball, and the occurence of stereotypic behaviour recorded using scan sampling of video observations. Pre-enrichment, horses spent a mean(SD) of 5.27 ? 8.17 per cent of their time in the stable performing stereotypies; and significant individual variation in mean time performing stereotypic behaviour was found (P < 0.05). Several peaks in stereotypy over the day were found, the two main ones corresponding to the times before feeding. A reduction in stereotypic behaviour in five horses, and a small increase in stereotypic behaviour in one horse was observed during enrichment. During enrichment, there was an overall trend for stereotypic behaviour to decrease (P < 0.1). When used in conjunction with other measures such as behaviour therapy, companionship, increased exercise, and so on, the Equiball may help to create an environment less likely to lead to the development of stereotypic behaviours. |
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