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	Author	Dougherty, D.M.; Lewis, P.
	Title	Stimulus generalization, discrimination learning, and peak shift in horses			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Anal Behav
	Volume	56	Issue	1	Pages	97-104
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Attention; Conditioning, Operant; Discrimination Learning; Female; Generalization, Stimulus; Horses/psychology; Male; Pattern Recognition, Visual; Size Perception
	Abstract	Using horses, we investigated three aspects of the stimulus control of lever-pressing behavior: stimulus generalization, discrimination learning, and peak shift. Nine solid black circles, ranging in size from 0.5 in. to 4.5 in. (1.3 cm to 11.4 cm) served as stimuli. Each horse was shaped, using successive approximations, to press a rat lever with its lip in the presence of a positive stimulus, the 2.5-in. (6.4-cm) circle. Shaping proceeded quickly and was comparable to that of other laboratory organisms. After responding was maintained on a variable-interval 30-s schedule, stimulus generalization gradients were collected from 2 horses prior to discrimination training. During discrimination training, grain followed lever presses in the presence of a positive stimulus (a 2.5-in circle) and never followed lever presses in the presence of a negative stimulus (a 1.5-in. [3.8-cm] circle). Three horses met a criterion of zero responses to the negative stimulus in fewer than 15 sessions. Horses given stimulus generalization testing prior to discrimination training produced symmetrical gradients; horses given discrimination training prior to generalization testing produced asymmetrical gradients. The peak of these gradients shifted away from the negative stimulus. These results are consistent with discrimination, stimulus generalization, and peak-shift phenomena observed in other organisms.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Ohio University, Athens 45701
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0022-5002	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1940765			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1764
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	Author	Schwarzenberger, F.; Mostl, E.; Bamberg, E.; Pammer, J.; Schmehlik, O.
	Title	Concentrations of progestagens and oestrogens in the faeces of pregnant Lipizzan, trotter and thoroughbred mares			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of reproduction and fertility. Supplement	Abbreviated Journal	J Reprod Fertil Suppl
	Volume	44	Issue		Pages	489-499
	Keywords	Animals; Estrogens/analysis; Feces/chemistry; Female; Gestational Age; Horses/metabolism; Immunoenzyme Techniques; Labor, Obstetric; Pregnancy; Pregnancy, Animal/metabolism; Pregnenes/analysis; Progestins/*analysis
	Abstract	Faecal samples were collected at weekly intervals from pregnant Lipizzan mares during Weeks 7-16 following mating and from Lipizzan, Trotter and Thoroughbred mares during the last 3 months of gestation. After parturition, samples were taken daily from the Thoroughbred mares for another 6 days. Non-pregnant mares served as controls. The concentrations of unconjugated oestrogens (Eg), 20 alpha-OH-progestagens (20 alpha-G) and 20 beta-OH-progestagens (20 beta-G) were measured by enzyme immunoassay. In the faeces of Lipizzan mares, immunoreactive progestagens were significantly (P less than 0.01) elevated above the levels in non-pregnant mares by Week 11, and Eg by Week 13 of pregnancy onwards. During the last 3 months of gestation, concentrations of Eg were significantly higher in Trotter mares than in Lipizzan and Thoroughbred mares. Concentrations of 20 alpha-G and 20 beta-G increased to maximal values in the last month of gestation. There was no significant difference among the 3 breeds with respect to 20 alpha-G but, during the 10 weeks before parturition, concentrations of 20 beta-G in the Lipizzan mares were significantly lower (P less than 0.05) than those in the Thoroughbred mares. They were also significantly lower than those of the Trotter mares during the last 4 weeks of gestation. After parturition, the concentrations of Eg and progestagens had declined to baseline values by Days 3 and 4 respectively. From these results we conclude that high concentrations of progestagens with 20 alpha- and 20 beta-hydroxyl groups are present in the faeces of pregnant mares, especially during the last month of gestation.
	Address	Institut fur Biochemie, Veterinary Medical University, Vienna, Austria
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0449-3087	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1795293			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	322
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	Author	Lucas, Z.; Raeside, J.I.; Betteridge, K.J.
	Title	Non-invasive assessment of the incidences of pregnancy and pregnancy loss in the feral horses of Sable Island			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement	Abbreviated Journal	J Reprod Fertil Suppl
	Volume	44	Issue		Pages	479-488
	Keywords	Abortion, Veterinary/epidemiology; Animals; Animals, Wild/physiology; Atlantic Islands; Estrogens/analysis; Feces/chemistry; Female; Fertilization; Gestational Age; Horse Diseases/epidemiology; Horses; Incidence; Pregnancy; Pregnancy, Animal
	Abstract	Field observations of 400 totally unmanaged feral horses on Sable Island, Nova Scotia, were complemented by oestrogen determinations in faecal samples from 154 identified females over a 4-year period (454 mare-years). Of mares that were sampled throughout the year and subsequently produced foals, 92.1% exhibited elevated faecal oestrogens between 15 October and 30 March. The results confirm that faecal oestrogens are a useful indicator of pregnancy after approximately 120 days gestation. Distribution of foaling resembled that seen in other feral populations, with 95% of births occurring from April through July. The foaling rate for mares aged 3 years or older was 62.0%, with 50.7% of mares foaling in 3 or 4 years. Foaling rates were low (4.1%) in mares bred as yearlings and rose with age to 70.8% in those bred as 4-year-olds. Fetal loss after Day 120 was deduced from faecal oestrogens to be 26.0% overall, with marked variation from year to year (9.6-37.3%) and with age (70.0% in those bred as yearlings, decreasing to 5.6% in those bred as 4-year-olds). Of 58 mares aged 2 years or older that were sampled every year, about half (49.6%) the barren years were attributable to fetal loss after 120 days gestation. All mares conceived in at least 2 of the 4 years, suggesting that pregnancy loss, even after Day 120, is as important as failure to conceive in causing barren years.
	Address	Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Canada
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0449-3087	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1795292			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2247
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	Author	Houpt, K.A.
	Title	Investigating equine ingestive, maternal, and sexual behavior in the field and in the laboratory			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of Animal Science	Abbreviated Journal	J. Anim Sci.
	Volume	69	Issue	10	Pages	4161-4166
	Keywords
	Abstract	Some of the techniques that may be used to study social, reproductive, and ingestive behavior in horses are described in this paper. One of the aspects of equine social behavior is the dominance hierarchy or patterns of agonistic behavior. Paired or group feeding from a single food source may be used to determine dominance hierarchies quickly. Focal animal studies of undisturbed groups of horses may also be used; this method takes longer, but may reveal affiliative as well as agonistic relationships among the horses. Reproductive behavior includes flehmen, the functional significance of which can be determined using combinations of field observations of harem groups and laboratory studies of stallions exposed to female urine or feces in the absence of the donor mare. Ingestive behavior may include food, salt, or water intake. Direct and indirect measurements of intake can be made and used to answer questions regarding the ability of horses to control their energy intake when the diet is diluted, the effect of feral equids on the ecology of an area, and the abilities of horses to compensate for dehydration and hypovolemia.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
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	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	667
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	Author	Krzak, W.E.; Gonyou, H.W.; Lawrence, L.M.
	Title	Wood chewing by stabled horses: diurnal pattern and effects of exercise			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of Animal Science	Abbreviated Journal	J. Anim Sci.
	Volume	69	Issue	3	Pages	1053-1058
	Keywords	Animal Feed; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Circadian Rhythm; Female; Horses/physiology; Male; Mastication; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Sodium Chloride/administration & dosage; Videotape Recording; Wood
	Abstract	Nine yearling horses, stabled in individual stalls, were used in a trial to determine the diurnal pattern of wood chewing and the effects of exercise on this behavior. The trial was a Latin square design conducted over three 2-wk periods during which each horse was exposed to each of the three following treatments: 1) no exercise (NE), 2) exercise after the morning feeding (AM), and 3) exercise in the afternoon (PM). Horses were fed a complete pelleted feed in the morning and both pelleted feed and long-stemmed hay in the afternoon. Exercise consisted of 45 min on a mechanical walker followed by 45 min in a paddock with bare soil. Each stall was equipped with two untreated spruce boards during each period for wood chewing. Wood chewing was evaluated by videotaping each horse for 22 h during each period, determining the weight and volume of the boards before and after each period, and by visual appraisal of the boards. Intake of trace mineralized salt was also measured. Wood chewing occurred primarily between 2200 and 1200. All measures of wood chewing were correlated when totals for the entire 6 wk were analyzed. When analysis was performed on 2-wk values, videotape results were not correlated with volume or weight loss of boards. Horses chewed more when on the NE treatment (511 s/d) than when on AM or PM (57 and 136 s/d, respectively; P less than .05). Salt intake tended to be greater for NE than for the other treatments (P less than .10).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
	Address	Dept. of Anim. Sci., University of Illinois, Urbana 61801
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0021-8812	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:2061237			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	1949
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	Author	Duncan, I.J.; Petherick, J.C.
	Title	The implications of cognitive processes for animal welfare			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of Animal Science	Abbreviated Journal	J. Anim Sci.
	Volume	69	Issue	12	Pages	5017-5022
	Keywords	Animal Welfare; Animals; Animals, Domestic/psychology; *Cognition
	Abstract	In general, codes that have been designed to safeguard the welfare of animals emphasize the importance of providing an environment that will ensure good health and a normal physiological and physical state, that is, they emphasize the animals' physical needs. If mental needs are mentioned, they are always relegated to secondary importance. The argument is put forward here that animal welfare is dependent solely on the cognitive needs of the animals concerned. In general, if these cognitive needs are met, they will protect the animals' physical needs. It is contended that in the few cases in which they do not safeguard the physical needs, it does not matter from a welfare point of view. The human example is given of being ill. It is argued that welfare is only adversely affected when a person feels ill, knows that he or she is ill, or even thinks that he or she is ill, all of which processes are cognitive ones. The implications for welfare of animals possessing certain cognitive abilities are discussed. For example, the extent to which animals are aware of their internal state while performing behavior known to be indicative of so-called states of suffering, such as fear, frustration, and pain, will determine how much they are actually suffering. With careful experimentation it may be possible to determine how negative they feel these states to be. Similarly, the extent to which animals think about items or events absent from their immediate environment will determine how frustrated they are in the absence of the real item or event but in the presence of the cognitive representation.
	Address	University of Guelph, Canada
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0021-8812	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1808195			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2753
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	Author	Curtis, S.E.; Stricklin, W.R.
	Title	The importance of animal cognition in agricultural animal production systems: an overview			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of Animal Science	Abbreviated Journal	J. Anim Sci.
	Volume	69	Issue	12	Pages	5001-5007
	Keywords	Agriculture; Animal Population Groups/psychology; Animal Welfare; Animals; Behavior, Animal; *Cognition; Heat; Helplessness, Learned; Housing, Animal/standards; Immobilization; Nesting Behavior; Pain/psychology/veterinary
	Abstract	To describe and then fulfill agricultural animals' needs, we must learn more about their fundamental psychological and behavioral processes. How does this animal feel? Is that animal suffering? Will we ever be able to know these things? Scientists specializing in animal cognition say that there are numerous problems but that they can be overcome. Recognition by scientists of the notion of animal awareness has been increasing in recent years, because of the work of Griffin and others. Feeling, thinking, remembering, and imagining are cognitive processes that are factors in the economic and humane production of agricultural animals. It has been observed that the animal welfare debate depends on two controversial questions: Do animals have subjective feelings? If they do, can we find indicators that reveal them? Here, indirect behavioral analysis approaches must be taken. Moreover, the linear additivity of several stressor effects on a variety of animal traits suggests that some single phenomenon is acting as a “clearinghouse” for many or all of the stresses acting on an animal at any given time, and this phenomenon might be psychological stress. Specific situations animals may encounter in agricultural production settings are discussed with respect to the animals' subjective feelings.
	Address	University of Illinois, Urbana 61801
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0021-8812	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1808193			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2754
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	Author	Kendrick, K.M.
	Title	How the sheep's brain controls the visual recognition of animals and humans			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Journal of Animal Science	Abbreviated Journal	J. Anim Sci.
	Volume	69	Issue	12	Pages	5008-5016
	Keywords
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2940
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	Author	McDonnell, S.M.; Henry,M. Bristol, F.
	Title	Spontaneous erection and masturbation in equids Proc 35th			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication		Abbreviated Journal	J. Reprod. Fert. Suppl
	Volume	44	Issue		Pages	664-665
	Keywords	Horse; Masturbation; Erection; Aversive conditioning; Sexual behavior; Ejaculation; Semen
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
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	Notes	This paper is part of the special issue entitled “Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Stallion Reproduction”, Guest Edited by Dr. Edward Squires.			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1378
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	Author	Marean, C.W.; Gifford-Gonzalez, D.
	Title	Late Quaternary extinct ungulates of East Africa and palaeoenvironmental implications			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1991	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	350	Issue	6317	Pages	418-420
	Keywords
	Abstract	UNGULATE communities of two East African savannas, the Serengeti and Athi-Kapiti Plains, are dominated by wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) supplemented by zebra (Equus burchelli), topi (Damaliscus lunatus), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), buffalo (Syncerus caffer) eland (Taurotragus oryx) and gazelles (Gazella grand and G. thomsoni)1-3. Before this research, little was known of East African large mammal communities in the Late Pleistocene and early to middle Holocene. We document an extinct impala-sized alcelaphine antelope that is numerically dominant in Late Pleistocene archaeofaunal assemblages from the Athi-Kapiti Plains. The extinct giant buffalo Pelorovis antiquus is present, and a number of arid-adapted regionally extinct species are common. The small alcelaphine is rare in northern Tanzania, but regionally extinct arid-adapted species are present in Late Pleistocene deposits. These data indicate that as recently as 12,000 years ago, the large mammal community structure of East African savannas was very different and dry grasslands and arid-adapted ungulates expanded at least as far south as northern Tanzania during the Last Glacial Maximum.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
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	Notes	10.1038/350418a0			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2345
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