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	Author	Whiten, A.
	Title	Imitation of the sequential structure of actions by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1998	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	112	Issue	3	Pages	270-281
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior/physiology; Ceremonial Behavior; Exploratory Behavior/physiology; Female; Fruit; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Learning/physiology; Male; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Practice (Psychology); Problem Solving/*physiology
	Abstract	Imitation was studied experimentally by allowing chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to observe alternative patterns of actions for opening a specially designed “artificial fruit.” Like problematic foods primates deal with naturally, with the test fruit several defenses had to be removed to gain access to an edible core, but the sequential order and method of defense removal could be systematically varied. Each subject repeatedly observed 1 of 2 alternative techniques for removing each defense and 1 of 2 alternative sequential patterns of defense removal. Imitation of sequential organization emerged after repeated cycles of demonstration and attempts at opening the fruit. Imitation in chimpanzees may thus have some power to produce cultural convergence, counter to the supposition that individual learning processes corrupt copied actions. Imitation of sequential organization was accompanied by imitation of some aspects of the techniques that made up the sequence.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. a.whiten@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:9770315			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	743
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Hall, C.A.; Cassaday, H.J.; Vincent, C.J.; Derrington, A.M.
	Title	Cone excitation ratios correlate with color discrimination performance in the horse (Equus caballus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	120	Issue	4	Pages	438-448
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Color Perception; Discrimination (Psychology); Discrimination Learning; Horses; Photoreceptors, Vertebrate/*physiology
	Abstract	Six horses (Equus caballus) were trained to discriminate color from grays in a counterbalanced sequence in which lightness cues were irrelevant. Subsequently, the pretrained colors were presented in a different sequence. Two sets of novel colors paired with novel grays were also tested. Performance was just as good in these transfer tests. Once the horse had learned to select the chromatic from the achromatic stimulus, regardless of the specific color, they were immediately able to apply this rule to novel stimuli. In terms of the underlying visual mechanisms, the present study showed for the first time that the spectral sensitivity of horse cone photopigments, measured as cone excitation ratios, was correlated with color discrimination performance, measured as accuracy, repeated errors, and latency of approach.
	Address	School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell, United Kingdom. carol.hall@ntu.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17115866			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1780
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	Author	Langbein, J.; Nurnberg, G.; Puppe, B.; Manteuffel, G.
	Title	Self-Controlled Visual Discrimination Learning of Group-Housed Dwarf Goats (Capra hircus): Behavioral Strategies and Effects of Relocation on Learning and Memory			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Journal of Comparative Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J. Comp. Psychol.
	Volume	120	Issue	1	Pages	58-66
	Keywords	dwarf goats; visual discrimination; operant learning; learning strategies; context
	Abstract	In most studies on animal learning, individual animals are tested separately in a specific learning environment and with a limited number of trials per day. An alternative approach is to test animals in a familiar environment in their social group. In this study, the authors--applying a fully automated learning device--investigated voluntary, self-controlled visual shape discrimination learning of group-housed dwarf goats (Capra hircus). The majority of the tested goats showed successful shape discrimination, which indicates the adaptive value of an effective learning strategy. However, in each group, a few individual goats developed behavioral strategies different from shape discrimination to get reward. Relocation impairs memory retrieval (probably by attention shifting) only temporarily for previously learnt shapes. The results demonstrate the usefulness of a self-controlled learning paradigm to assess learning abilities of social species in their normal social settings. This may be especially relevant for captive animals to improve their welfare.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	2140
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Hare, B.; Tomasello, M.
	Title	Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris) Use Human and Conspecific Social Cues to Locate Hidden Food			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Journal of Comparative Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J. Comp. Psychol.
	Volume	113	Issue	2	Pages	173-177
	Keywords
	Abstract	Ten domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) of different breeds and ages were exposed to 2 different social cues indicating the location of hidden food, each provided by both a human informant and a conspecific informant (for a total of 4 different social cues). For the local enhancement cue, the informant approached the location where food was hidden and then stayed beside it. For the gaze and point cue, the informant stood equidistant between 2 hiding locations and bodily oriented and gazed toward the 1 in which food was hidden (the human informant also pointed). Eight of the 10 subjects, including the one 6-month-old juvenile, were above chance with 2 or more cues. Results are discussed in terms of the phylogenetic and ontogenetic processes by means of which dogs come to use social cues to locate food.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	590
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Brauer, J.; Kaminski, J.; Riedel, J.; Call, J.; Tomasello, M.
	Title	Making inferences about the location of hidden food: social dog, causal ape			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	120	Issue	1	Pages	38-47
	Keywords	Animals; Communication; Cues; Dogs; Exploratory Behavior; Feeding Behavior; Female; Food; Male; Pan paniscus; Pan troglodytes; *Visual Perception
	Abstract	Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and great apes from the genus Pan were tested on a series of object choice tasks. In each task, the location of hidden food was indicated for subjects by some kind of communicative, behavioral, or physical cue. On the basis of differences in the ecologies of these 2 genera, as well as on previous research, the authors hypothesized that dogs should be especially skillful in using human communicative cues such as the pointing gesture, whereas apes should be especially skillful in using physical, causal cues such as food in a cup making noise when it is shaken. The overall pattern of performance by the 2 genera strongly supported this social-dog, causal-ape hypothesis. This result is discussed in terms of apes' adaptations for complex, extractive foraging and dogs' adaptations, during the domestication process, for cooperative communication with humans.
	Address	Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. jbraeuer@eva.mpg.de
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication	Washington, D.C. : 1983	Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16551163			Approved	yes
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	597
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Miklosi, A.; Pongracz, P.; Lakatos, G.; Topal, J.; Csanyi, V.
	Title	*A Comparative Study of the Use of Visual Communicative Signals in Interactions Between Dogs (Canis familiaris) and Humans and Cats (Felis catus) and Humans*			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Journal of Comparative Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J. Comp. Psychol.
	Volume	119	Issue	2	Pages	179-186
	Keywords
	Abstract	Dogs' (Canis familiaris) and cats' (Felis catus) interspecific communicative behavior toward humans was investigated. In Experiment 1, the ability of dogs and cats to use human pointing gestures in an object-choice task was compared using 4 types of pointing cues differing in distance between the signaled object and the end of the fingertip and in visibility duration of the given signal. Using these gestures, both dogs and cats were able to find the hidden food; there was no significant difference in their performance. In Experiment 2, the hidden food was made inaccessible to the subjects to determine whether they could indicate the place of the hidden food to a naive owner. Cats lacked some components of attention-getting behavior compared with dogs. The results suggest that individual familiarization with pointing gestures ensures high-level performance in the presence of such gestures; however, species-specific differences could cause differences in signaling toward the human.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	599
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Call, J.; Brauer, J.; Kaminski, J.; Tomasello, M.
	Title	*Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are sensitive to the attentional state of humans*			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	117	Issue	3	Pages	257-263
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Attention; Bonding, Human-Pet; Concept Formation; Cues; Dogs/psychology; Female; Humans; Inhibition (Psychology); Male; Nonverbal Communication
	Abstract	Twelve domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) were given a series of trials in which they were forbidden to take a piece of visible food. In some trials, the human continued to look at the dog throughout the trial (control condition), whereas in others, the human (a) left the room, (b) turned her back, (c) engaged in a distracting activity, or (d) closed her eyes. Dogs behaved in clearly different ways in most of the conditions in which the human did not watch them compared with the control condition, in which she did. In particular, when the human looked at them, dogs retrieved less food, approached it in a more indirect way, and sat (as opposed to laid down) more often than in the other conditions. Results are discussed in terms of domestic dogs' social-cognitive skills and their unique evolutionary and ontogenetic histories.
	Address	Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. call@eva.mpg.de
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication	Washington, D.C. : 1983	Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14498801			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	713
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Horner, V.; Whiten, A.
	Title	*Learning from others' mistakes limits on understanding a trap-tube task by young chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens)*			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	121	Issue	1	Pages	12-21
	Keywords
	Abstract	A trap-tube task was used to determine whether chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens) who observed a model's errors and successes could master the task in fewer trials than those who saw only successes. Two- to 7-year-old chimpanzees and 3- to 4-year-old children did not benefit from observing errors and found the task difficult. Two of the 6 chimpanzees developed a successful anticipatory strategy but showed no evidence of representing the core causal relations involved in trapping. Three- to 4-year-old children showed a similar limitation and tended to copy the actions of the demonstrator, irrespective of their causal relevance. Five- to 6-year-old children were able to master the task but did not appear to be influenced by social learning or benefit from observing errors.
	Address	Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, UK. vhorner@rmy.emory.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication	Washington, D.C. : 1983	Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17324071			Approved	yes
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	728
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Horowitz, A.C.
	Title	Do humans ape? Or do apes human? Imitation and intention in humans (Homo sapiens) and other animals			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	117	Issue	3	Pages	325-336
	Keywords	Adolescent; Adult; Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Attention; Child, Preschool; Concept Formation; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Male; Motivation; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Problem Solving; *Psychomotor Performance; Reaction Time; Species Specificity
	Abstract	A. Whiten, D. M. Custance, J.-C. Gomez, P. Teixidor, and K. A. Bard (1996) tested chimpanzees' (Pan troglodytes) and human children's (Homo sapiens) skills at imitation with a 2-action test on an “artificial fruit.” Chimpanzees imitated to a restricted degree; children were more thoroughly imitative. Such results prompted some to assert that the difference in imitation indicates a difference in the subjects' understanding of the intentions of the demonstrator (M. Tomasello, 1996). In this experiment, 37 adult human subjects were tested with the artificial fruit. Far from being perfect imitators, the adults were less imitative than the children. These results cast doubt on the inference from imitative performance to an ability to understand others' intentions. The results also demonstrate how any test of imitation requires a control group and attention to the level of behavioral analysis.
	Address	Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA. ahorowitz@crl.ucsd.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication	Washington, D.C. : 1983	Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14498809			Approved	yes
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	736
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.; Custance, D.M.; Gomez, J.C.; Teixidor, P.; Bard, K.A.
	Title	Imitative learning of artificial fruit processing in children (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1996	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	110	Issue	1	Pages	3-14
	Keywords	Animals; Child, Preschool; Discrimination Learning; Female; Food Preferences/psychology; Fruit; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Male; Mental Recall; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Social Environment
	Abstract	Observational learning in chimpanzees and young children was investigated using an artificial fruit designed as an analog of natural foraging problems faced by primates. Each of 3 principal components could be removed in 2 alternative ways, demonstration of only one of which was watched by each subject. This permitted subsequent imitation by subjects to be distinguished from stimulus enhancement. Children aged 2-4 years evidenced imitation for 2 components, but also achieved demonstrated outcomes through their own techniques. Chimpanzees relied even more on their own techniques, but they did imitate elements of 1 component of the task. To our knowledge, this is the first experimental evidence of chimpanzee imitation in a functional task designed to simulate foraging behavior hypothesized to be transmitted culturally in the wild.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. aw2@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:8851548			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	744
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