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Author Reader, S.M. doi  openurl
  Title Innovation and social learning: individual variation and brain evolution Type Journal Article
  Year 2003 Publication Animal Biology (formerly Netherlands Journal of Zoology) Abbreviated Journal Anim. Biol. Leiden.  
  Volume 53 Issue 2 Pages 147-158  
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  Abstract This paper reviews behavioural, neurological and cognitive correlates of innovation at the individual, population and species level, focusing on birds and primates. Innovation, new or modified learned behaviour not previously found in the population, is the first stage in many instances of cultural transmission and may play an important role in the lives of animals with generalist or opportunistic lifestyles. Within-species, innovation is associated with low neophobia, high neophilia, and with high social learning propensities. Indices of innovatory propensities can be calculated for taxonomic groups by counting the frequency of reports of innovation in published literature. These innovation rate data provide a useful comparative measure for studies of behavioural flexibility and cognition. Innovation rate is positively correlated with the relative size of association areas in the brain, namely the hyperstriatum ventrale and neostriatum in birds, and the neocortex and striatum in primates. Innovation rate is also positively correlated with the reported variety of tool use, as well as interspecific differences in learning. Current evidence thus suggests similar patterns of cognitive evolution in primates and birds.  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 3395  
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Author Gardner, P. doi  openurl
  Title The responses of horses in a discrimination problem Type Journal Article
  Year 1937 Publication Journal-of-Comparative-Psychology Abbreviated Journal J Comp Psychol  
  Volume 23 Issue Pages 305-333  
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  Abstract 62 horses were trained to obtain food from the one of three boxes which was covered with a black cloth. The position of the box varied from trial to trial in a random order. Learning was apparently in terms of vision, rather than smell. Many errors were due to the line of direction of the horse's movement as it entered the experimental situation. For all animals the learning curve dropped rapidly during the first few trials. There was slightly more rapid learning in younger horses than in older ones. No sex differences were apparent. Percherons made fewer errors than Belgians. Draft horses showed a slight superiority over military and farm horses. The statistical reliability of these differences is not reported. Good retention was evidenced after a period of several months. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 3613  
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Author McCall, C.A.; Salters, M.A.; Simpson, S.M. url  doi
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  Title Relationship between number of conditioning trials per training session and avoidance learning in horses Type Journal Article
  Year 1993 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.  
  Volume 36 Issue 4 Pages 291-299  
  Keywords Horse; Learning; Avoidance conditioning  
  Abstract Sixteen horses were used to determine if number of trials given per training session (5, 10, 15 or 20) affected learning performance in an avoidance conditioning task. The horse had to move from one side of a test pen to the other during an auditory cue presentation to avoid aversive stimulation. A pen 8 mx3.6 m, divided into two equal sections by a 13-cm diameter plastic pipe lying on the ground, was used as the test pen. Painted plywood panels were fastened to the fence in half the pen to help horses distinguish visually between the two parts. A 10-s auditory cue was used as a signal for horses to move from one side of the test pen to the other. A 20-s intertrial interval was used. Training sessions were conducted every third day. Each trial was recorded as an avoidance (the horse completed the task during auditory cue presentation and avoided aversive stimulus) or an error (the horse received aversive stimulus). After completing ten consecutive avoidances (criterion), the horse was removed from the study. Numbers of training sessions, trials, avoidances and errors until reaching criterion were recorded for each horse. Horses varied greatly within these variables with ranges of 3-18 sessions, 37-121 trials, 20-68 avoidances and 17-53 errors to criterion. No differences were detected (P>0.05) in the number of conditioning trials per training session (treatment) for the mean number of trials, avoidances or errors to criterion. Number of training sessions to criterion differed (P<0.01) among treatments, indicating that an optimum number of learning trials per training session might exist. Mean sessions to criterion for horses receiving 5, 10, 15 and 20 trials per session were 15.1+/-1.3, 5.8+/-1.1, 5.3+/-1.1 and 4.6+/-1.1, respectively. Regression analysis indicated that 16.2 trials per training session would minimize number of sessions to criterion. Although it is widely assumed that learning efficiency in horses is decreased when intense activity is concentrated into a small number of sessions, these results indicate that moderate repetition of training activities is needed for efficient learning.  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 3686  
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Author Gomez Alvarez, C.B.; Rhodin, M.; Bobber, M.F.; Meyer, H.; Weishaupt, M.A.; Johnston, C.; Van Weeren, P.R. openurl 
  Title The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse Type Journal Article
  Year 2006 Publication Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement Abbreviated Journal Equine Vet J Suppl  
  Volume Issue 36 Pages 445-451  
  Keywords Animals; Biomechanics; Head/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Lumbar Vertebrae/physiology; Male; Neck/*physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/physiology; Posture/*physiology; Sports; Thoracic Vertebrae/physiology; Weight-Bearing  
  Abstract REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. OBJECTIVES: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. METHODS: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 = as HNP2 with bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 = head and neck lowered, nose behind the vertical; HNP5 = head and neck in extreme high position; HNP6 = head and neck forward and downward. HNP1 was a speed-matched control (head and neck unrestrained). RESULTS: The head and neck positions affected only the flexion-extension motion. The positions in which the neck was extended (HNP2, 3, 5) increased extension in the anterior thoracic region, but increased flexion in the posterior thoracic and lumbar region. For HNP4 the pattern was the opposite. Positions 2, 3 and 5 reduced the flexion-extension range of motion (ROM) while HNP4 increased it. HNP5 was the only position that negatively affected intravertebral pattern symmetry and reduced hindlimb protraction. The stride length was significantly reduced at walk in positions 2, 3, 4 and 5. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant influence of head/neck position on back kinematics. Elevated head and neck induce extension in the thoracic region and flexion in the lumbar region; besides reducing the sagittal range of motion. Lowered head and neck produces the opposite. A very high position of the head and neck seems to disturb normal kinematics. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study provides quantitative data on the effect of head/neck positions on thoracolumbar motion and may help in discussions on the ethical acceptability of some training methods.  
  Address Department of Equine Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 12, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands  
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  Notes PMID:17402464 Approved no  
  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 3702  
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Author Weishaupt, M.A.; Wiestner, T.; von Peinen, K.; Waldern, N.; Roepstorff, L.; van Weeren, R.; Meyer, H.; Johnston, C. openurl 
  Title Effect of head and neck position on vertical ground reaction forces and interlimb coordination in the dressage horse ridden at walk and trot on a treadmill Type Journal Article
  Year 2006 Publication Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement Abbreviated Journal Equine Vet J Suppl  
  Volume Issue 36 Pages 387-392  
  Keywords Animals; Biomechanics; Exercise Test/instrumentation/methods/*veterinary; Forelimb/physiology; Gait; Head/physiology; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Male; Neck/physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/methods/*physiology; Posture; Statistics, Nonparametric; Walking/*physiology  
  Abstract REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Little is known in quantitative terms about the influence of different head-neck positions (HNPs) on the loading pattern of the locomotor apparatus. Therefore it is difficult to predict whether a specific riding technique is beneficial for the horse or if it may increase the risk for injury. OBJECTIVE: To improve the understanding of forelimb-hindlimb balance and its underlying temporal changes in relation to different head and neck positions. METHODS: Vertical ground reaction force and time parameters of each limb were measured in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden at walk and trot on an instrumented treadmill in 6 predetermined HNPs: HNP1 – free, unrestrained with loose reins; HNP2 – neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 – neck raised, bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 – neck lowered and flexed, bridge of the nose considerably behind the vertical; HNP5 – neck extremely elevated and bridge of the nose considerably in front of the vertical; HNP6 – neck and head extended forward and downward. Positions were judged by a qualified dressage judge. HNPs were assessed by comparing the data to a velocity-matched reference HNP (HNP2). Differences were tested using paired t test or Wilcoxon signed rank test (P<0.05). RESULTS: At the walk, stride duration and overreach distance increased in HNP1, but decreased in HNP3 and HNP5. Stride impulse was shifted to the forehand in HNP1 and HNP6, but shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. At the trot, stride duration increased in HNP4 and HNP5. Overreach distance was shorter in HNP4. Stride impulse shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. In HNP1 peak forces decreased in the forelimbs; in HNP5 peak forces increased in fore- and hindlimbs. CONCLUSIONS: HNP5 had the biggest impact on limb timing and load distribution and behaved inversely to HNP1 and HNP6. Shortening of forelimb stance duration in HNP5 increased peak forces although the percentage of stride impulse carried by the forelimbs decreased. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: An extremely high HNP affects functionality much more than an extremely low neck.  
  Address Equine Hospital, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland  
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  Notes PMID:17402453 Approved no  
  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 3704  
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Author Laland K.N. url  doi
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  Title Social learning strategies Type Journal Article
  Year 2004 Publication Learning & Behavior Abbreviated Journal Learn. Behav.  
  Volume 32 Issue Pages 4-14  
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  Abstract In most studies of social learning in animals, no attempt has been made to examine the nature of the strategy adopted by animals when they copy others. Researchers have expended considerable effort in exploring the psychological processes that underlie social learning and amassed extensive data banks recording purported social learning in the field, but the contexts under which animals copy others remain unexplored. Yet, theoretical models used to investigate the adaptive advantages of social learning lead to the conclusion that social learning cannot be indiscriminate and that individuals should adopt strategies that dictate the circumstances under which they copy others and from whom they learn. In this article, I discuss a number of possible strategies that are predicted by theoretical analyses, including copy when uncertain, copy the majority, and copy if better, and consider the empirical evidence in support of each, drawing from both the animal and human social learning literature. Reliance on social learning strategies may be organized hierarchically, their being employed by animals when unlearned and asocially learned strategies prove ineffective but before animals take recourse in innovation.  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 4193  
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Author Dunbar, Robin I. M. doi  openurl
  Title The social brain hypothesis Type Journal Article
  Year 1998 Publication Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews Abbreviated Journal Evol. Anthropol.  
  Volume 6 Issue 5 Pages 178-190  
  Keywords brain size – neocortex – social brain hypothesis – social skills – mind reading – primates  
  Abstract Conventional wisdom over the past 160 years in the cognitive and neurosciences has assumed that brains evolved to process factual information about the world. Most attention has therefore been focused on such features as pattern recognition, color vision, and speech perception. By extension, it was assumed that brains evolved to deal with essentially ecological problem-solving tasks. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.  
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  Notes Robin Dunbar is Professor of Evolutionary Psychology and Behavioural Ecology at the University of Liverpool, England. His research primarily focuses on the behavioral ecology of ungulates and human and nonhuman primates, and on the cognitive mechanisms and brain components that underpin the decisions that animals make. He runs a large research group, with graduate students working on many different species on four continents. Approved no  
  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 4371  
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Author Krueger, K. (ed) pdf  isbn
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  Title Proceedings of the International Equine Science Meeting 2008 Type Conference Volume
  Year 2008 Publication IESM 2008 Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume Issue Pages  
  Keywords Equine Ecology; Equine Sociality; Equine Learning; Equine Cognition; Equine Welfare  
  Abstract Target group: Biologists, Psychologists, Veterinarians and Professionals

Meeting target: Because the last international meeting on Equine Science took place a couple years ago, there is an urgent need for equine scientists to exchange scientific knowledge, coordinate research provide knowledge for practical application, and discus research results among themselves and with professionals who work with horses. Additionally, dialog concerning the coordination of the study “Equitation Science” in Europe is urgently needed. Coordination and cooperation shall arise from the meeting, enrich the research, and advance the application of scientific knowledge for the horses` welfare.
 
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  Publisher Xenophon Verlag Place of Publication Wald Editor Krueger, K.  
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  ISSN (up) ISBN 978-3-9808134-0-2 Medium  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 4508  
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Author Houpt, K.A. openurl 
  Title Equine behavior problems in relation to humane management Type Journal Article
  Year 1981 Publication Int. J. Stud. Anim Prob. Abbreviated Journal Int. J. Stud. Anim. Prob.  
  Volume 2 Issue 6 Pages 329-337  
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  Notes Cited By (since 1996): 7; Export Date: 21 October 2008 Approved no  
  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 4521  
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Author To be deleted openurl 
  Title The responses of horses in a discrimination problem Type Journal Article
  Year 1937 Publication J. Compar. Physiol. Psychol. Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 23 Issue Pages 305-333  
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  Notes Cited By (since 1996): 2; Export Date: 24 October 2008 Approved no  
  Call Number Admin @ knut @ Serial 4585  
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