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McGreevy, P.D.; Rogers, L.J. |
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Title  |
Motor and sensory laterality in thoroughbred horses |
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Journal Article |
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2005 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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92 |
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4 |
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337-352 |
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Horse; Lateralisation; Training; Olfaction; Forelimb preference |
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We investigated lateralisation in horses because it is likely to be important in training and athletic performance. Thoroughbred horses (n = 106) were observed every 60 s for 2 h, when they were at pasture, and the position of the forelimbs in relation to one another was recorded. There was a population bias skewed to standing with the left forelimb advanced over the right (i.e. directional lateralisation). Using the first 50 observations, the distribution of preferences was 43 significantly left, 10 significantly right with 53 being non-significant (i.e. ambidextextrous). The strength of motor bias increased with age, suggesting maturation or an influence of training. The horses were also presented with an olfactory stimulus (stallion faeces) to score the tendency to use one nostril rather than the other. A significant preference to use the right nostril first was shown in horses under 4 years of age (n = 61) but not in older horses. Of the 157 horses tested for nostril bias, 76 had been assessed for motor bias and so were used for analysis of the relationship between laterality in the two modalities. There was no significant relationship between direction of foreleg motor bias and first nostril used, total number of inhalations or laterality index of nostril use. The absence of a correlation between laterality of nostril use and motor bias indicates that lateralisation of the equine brain occurs on at least two levels of neural organisation--sensory and motor--a finding that is consistent with other examples of lateralisation in species that have been examined in more detail. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ room 3.029 |
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1827 |
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Innes, L.; McBride, S. |
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Title |
Negative versus positive reinforcement: An evaluation of training strategies for rehabilitated horses |
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2008 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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112 |
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3–4 |
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357-368 |
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Horse; Training; Positive reinforcement; Negative reinforcement; Stress; Rehabilitation |
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Rescued equids are often exposed to rehabilitation and training (or retraining) programmes to improve their physical and psychological well-being as well as to facilitate the re-homing process. Training uses either positive or negative reinforcement learning procedures and it is considered here that, there may be welfare implications associated with using the latter technique as it has the potential to overlay acute stress on animals with a chronic stress life history. The aim of this study, therefore, was to compare these training strategies (negative versus positive reinforcement) on equine behaviour and physiology as the first step in establishing an optimal rehabilitation approach (from a welfare perspective) for equids that have been subjected to chronic stress in the form of long-term neglect/cruelty. Over a 7-week period, 16 ponies (aged 6–18 months) were trained using either positive (‘positive’) (n = 8) or negative reinforcement (‘negative’) (n = 8) techniques to lead in hand, stand to be groomed, traverse an obstacle course and load into a trailer. Heart rate was measured (5 s intervals) on days 1 and 4 of each training week, ‘Pre’- (1 h), ‘During’ (0.5 h) and ‘Post’- (1 h) training session. Ethograms (10.00–20.00 h) outside of the training period were also compiled twice weekly. In addition, weekly arena tests (as a measure of reactivity) were also performed 1 week before and during the 7 weeks of training. Results showed significant differences between the two training schedules for some measures during the latter stages of the trial and suggested that animals trained under a positive reinforcement schedule were more motivated to participate in the training sessions and exhibited more exploratory or ‘trial and error’ type behaviours in novel situations/environments. In this context, the incorporation of positive reinforcement schedules within a rehabilitation programme may be of benefit to the animal from a welfare perspective. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5644 |
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Simpson, B.S. |
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Title |
Neonatal foal handling |
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Journal Article |
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2002 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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303-317 |
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Neonatal foal handling; Imprint training; Learning in foals; Heart rate; Serum cortisol concentrations |
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Recent interest has focused on the advantage of intensively handling young foals as a means of producing more tractable horses, accustomed to humans and receptive to training. To date, the effect of this intensive handling, dubbed “imprint training” in the popular literature, has not been tested. The present study compares seven foals handled intensively as neonates with eight untreated controls. The handling protocol started from 2-8 h after birth and continued daily for a total of 5 days. The protocol consisted of a series of stimuli and experiences that were each repeated until the foal no longer resisted or reacted negatively. Subsequently, foals were tested before weaning, at 4 months of age. Results indicated that handled foals (HF) ranked higher than control foals (CF) in subjective ratings of calmness (*P<0.0117) and friendliness (*P<0.0001) and in several specific handling tasks (venipuncture *P<0.0220; placing in stock *P<0.0128). Although, in approach tests all foals but one allowed approach of a person to 4 m, significantly more HF approached the person than CF (P<0.0080). In stimulus tests, foals were presented specific stimuli to which they had been tested as neonates. Two of eight CF were too unruly and dangerous to test. Of foals that could be tested, CF required significantly more time to hook-up a heart rate monitor (**P<0.0055). Split-plot analysis indicated that HF had lower heart rates to initial left-sided stimuli, presented first, than CF (*P<0.0421). In response to right-sided stimuli, heart rate scores of CF were not significantly different from HF (P<0.2259), suggesting reduced reactivity over time due to a learning effect. Behavioral responses to specific stimuli did not differ between CF and HF, suggesting that neonatal handling has a general rather than specific effect on subsequent behavior. Cortisol concentrations were measured before and after testing and the difference calculated. All foals had higher post-testing levels than pre-testing levels. There was a significant difference between HF and CF, indicating greater reactivity among the CF (*P<0.050). In general, the results indicated that foals handled as neonates were more tractable and less reactive. Specific neonatal handling tasks, such as sticking a finger up the foal's nose or patting the bottom of the foot, seemed to have no beneficial effect on related tasks such as passing a nasogastric tube or tapping with a farrier's hammer at 4 months of age. Mechanisms for the observed effect of neonatal handling require further investigation. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3623 |
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Kedzierski, W.; Wilk, I.; Janczarek, I. |
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Physiological response to the first saddling and first mounting of horses: comparison of two sympathetic training methods |
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Journal Article |
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2014 |
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Animal Science Papers and Reports |
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32 |
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3 |
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219-228 |
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cortisol / emotional reaction/ horses / natural training / stress |
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There is not much research done on the influence of sympathetic training on the emotional reaction
of horses. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the emotional response and the stress level
in horses to two sympathetic training methods: (1) with the use of the “round pen technique” (RP),
and (2) in which the RP was not applied (SH). Twenty two half-bred Anglo-Arab horses (2.5
years ±3 months of age) were subject to an initial training. Eleven horses were randomly included
to the RP method and the other 11 horses for the SH method. Heart rate (HR) and saliva cortisol
concentration were measured as indicators of horse emotional arousal and stress level, respectively.
The HR values were analysed: at rest, during the habituation period, just after the first saddling
and tightening of the girth, during the first time a human leaned over the horse’s back, and during
the mounting of the horse. Saliva samples were taken before and 15 min after each training session
studied. After saddling, the HR occurred significantly higher when the RP technique was used. The
significant increase in saliva cortisol concentration was observed only after the first mounting of
the horse. Generally, the use of the RP technique did not involve more important physiological
reactions in the trained horses than did the SH method. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5816 |
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McGreevy, P.D.; McLean, A.N. |
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Punishment in horse-training and the concept of ethical equitation |
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2009 |
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior |
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J. Vet. Behav. |
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4 |
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5 |
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193-197 |
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conditioning; welfare; ethical equitation; horse; punishment; training |
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By definition, punishment makes a response less likely in the future. Because horses are largely trained by negative reinforcement, they are susceptible to inadvertent punishment. Delays in the release of pressure can make desirable responses less likely and thus punish them. This study examines the correct use of negative reinforcement and identifies a continuum between poorly timed negative reinforcement and punishment. It explores some of the problems of non-contingent punishment and the prospect of learned helplessness and experimental neurosis. It concludes by introducing the concept of ethical equitation. |
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1558-7878 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6599 |
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Warren-Smith, A.K.; Curtis, R.A.; Greetham, L.; McGreevy, P.D. |
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Rein contact between horse and handler during specific equitation movements |
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Journal Article |
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2007 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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108 |
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1-2 |
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157-169 |
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Horse; Long-reining; Rein contact; Rein tension; Riding; Training |
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To explore the range of tensions used in reins to elicit specific movements from a range of horses, 22 horses of mixed age, sex, breed and training history were long-reined and ridden through a standard course. The reins contained embedded load cells so that tensions used to elicit specific movements could be measured and logged. These movements were categorised into `left turn', `right turn', `going straight' and `halt' and were separated for left and right rein tensions. The data were analysed using two-sample non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnoff tests and the differences between categories of horse and equipment were analysed with one-way analysis of variance. The tensions recorded in the reins were greater for long-reining than riding (median 5.76, Q25 3.9, Q75 13.3 N and median 5.29, Q25 9.3, Q75 2.9 N, respectively, P = 0.025), irrespective of whether the horses were ridden with a halter or a bridle or whether the test was completed at a walk or a trot. The tensions did not differ between the left and right reins (P > 0.05) when the horses were being driven or ridden in a straight line, providing evidence that an `even contact' was maintained. The rein tension required for going straight was less than for any other responses, showing that a lighter contact on the reins can be maintained between the application of specific stimuli. The rein tension required to elicit the halt response was greater than for any other response (P < 0.001). The rein tensions required to complete the course did not differ with the use of bridle versus the halter (P > 0.05). Clearly, a range of rein tensions is required for horses to elicit specific responses. In the interests of horse welfare and avoidance of habituation, those involved in equitation need to become aware of the tensions used in training horses and seek to keep them to a minimum. When rein tension can be measured objectively, this process can be easily implemented and monitored. |
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Admin @ knut @ |
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4336 |
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Author |
Flannery, B. |
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Relational discrimination learning in horses |
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1997 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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54 |
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4 |
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267-280 |
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Horses; Shaping; Complex discrimination; Concept formation; Generalization ability; Training |
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This series of studies investigated horses' ability to learn the concept of sameness under several different conditions. Before experimentation began, three horses were shaped to touch individually presented stimuli with their muzzles, and then to make two responses to two matching cards from an array of three. A modified version of the identity matching-to-sample (IMTS) procedure was used to present stimuli in a variety of configural arrangements on a barn wall (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), and on a flat panel mounted to a barn door (Experiment 3). The task in each experiment was to select the two stimulus cards that were the same (either circles or Xs) and to avoid the nonmatching stimulus card (either a star or a square). In Experiment 1, the mean accuracy rate for selecting the matching alternatives was 74%. The horses' accuracy levels reached a mean level of 83% during Experiment 2, in which they received additional trials and an intermittent secondary reinforcement schedule. In Experiment 3, when the stimuli were moved further apart from each other within arrangements and were presented on a novel background, the mean accuracy rate was 73%. These data demonstrate that horses can learn complex discrimination problems involving the concept of sameness, and that they are able to generalize this learning to a novel stimulus presentation situation. These results also suggest that a relational discrimination test may be useful for assessing horses' learning ability and the level of training appropriate for individual horses. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3557 |
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Christensen, J.W.; Munk, R.; Hawson, L.; Palme, R.; Larsen, T.; Egenvall, A.; König von Borstel, U.U.; Rørvang, M.V. |
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Rider effects on horses' conflict behaviour, rein tension, physiological measures and rideability scores |
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2021 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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234 |
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105184 |
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Equitation science; Heart rate; Horse riding; Sport horse; Temperament; Training cues |
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Many breeding organisations include a subjective scoring of rideability by a professional rider into their evaluation of sports horses, but the consistency and reliability of the scoring system is debateable. The aim of this study was to investigate (i) whether professional riders agree in their scoring of rideability, and (ii) whether rideability scores are affected by rein tension, horse conflict behaviour, heart rate, and salivary cortisol, and (iii) whether riders induce different levels of conflict behaviour and physiological responses in the horses. Ten professional, female riders each rode 10 dressage horses (level M German scale; n = 100 combinations) through a standardised dressage test (10 min warm-up followed by a 4-min test) and subsequently scored the horses for rideability on the official 1-10 scale (1 = poor to 10 = excellent) from the Danish Riding Federation. Rein tension, horse heart rate, saliva cortisol and conflict behaviour were measured for each rider-horse pair. The riders were inconsistent in their scoring of rideability to the individual horses, e.g. scores for one of the horses ranged from 1 to 8. There was a significant effect of rider (P = 0.003) and the frequency of conflict behaviour (undesired head movements: P < 0.001, breaking the gait: P = 0.013, and other evasive behaviour: P = 0.032) on rideability scores, i.e. the more conflict behaviour the lower the score. There was no significant effect of rein tension and the physiological measures on rideability scores. However, there was a significant effect of rider on rein tension, horses' heart rate and increases in saliva cortisol concentrations and a tendency for some types of conflict behaviour, suggesting that some riders induced more discomfort in the horses. Future studies could help shed light on which elements of riding style are particularly important for sports horse welfare. In conclusion, this study found a large variation in rideability scores assigned to ten sports horses by ten professional riders. Rideability scores were dependent on the level of horse conflict behaviour, but not rein tension and physiological measures. Further studies are needed to improve the objectivity, consistency and reliability of rideability assessment of sports horses. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6696 |
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McGreevy, P.D.; McLean, A.N. |
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Roles of learning theory and ethology in equitation |
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2007 |
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research |
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2 |
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4 |
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108-118 |
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ethological training; equine ethnology; equitation; horse behavior; learning theory |
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By definition, ethology is primarily the scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being the study of animal behavior in the human domain. The terms equine ethology and ethological training are becoming commonplace in the equestrian domain, yet they seem to be used with a conspicuous lack of clarity and with no mention of learning theory. Most of what we do to train horses runs counter to their innate preferences. This article summarizes the ethological challenges encountered by working horses and considers the merits and limitations of ethological solutions. It also questions the use of terms such as “alpha” and “leader” and examines aspects of learning theory, equine cognition, and ethology as applied to horse training and clinical behavior modification. We propose 7 training principles that optimally account for the horse's ethological and learning abilities and maintain maximal responsivity in the trained horse. These principles can be summarized as: (1) use learning theory appropriately; (2) train easy-to-discriminate signals; (3) train and subsequently elicit responses singularly; (4) train only one response per signal; (5) train all responses to be initiated and subsequently completed within a consistent structure; (6) train persistence of current operantly conditioned responses; and (7) avoid and disassociate flight responses. Adherence to these principles and incorporating them into all horse training methodologies should accelerate training success, reduce behavioral wastage of horses, and improve safety for both humans and horses. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4511 |
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Morton, F.B.; Lee, P.C.; Buchanan-Smith, H.M. |
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Taking personality selection bias seriously in animal cognition research: a case study in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella) |
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2013 |
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Animal Cognition |
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16 |
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4 |
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677-684 |
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Platyrrhines; Temperament; Cognitive experiment; Selection bias; Associative learning; Training |
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In most experimental work on animal cognition, researchers attempt to control for multiple interacting variables by training subjects prior to testing, allowing subjects to participate voluntarily, and providing subjects with food rewards. However, do such methods encourage selection bias from subjects’ personalities? In this study, we trained eighteen zoo-housed capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella) for two experiments, under conditions of positive reinforcement (i.e. food rewards) and free-choice participation. Using a combination of behavioral and rater-based methods, we identified and validated five personality dimensions in these capuchins (Assertiveness, Openness, Neuroticism, Sociability, and Attentiveness). Scores on Openness were positively related to individual differences in monkey task participation, reflecting previous work showing that such individuals are often more active, curious, and willing to engage in testing. We also found a negative relationship between scores on Assertiveness and performance on tasks, which may reflect the trade-offs between speed and accuracy in these animals’ decision-making. Highly Assertive individuals (the most sociable within monkey groups) may also prioritize social interactions over engaging in research. Lastly, monkeys that consistently participated and performed well on both tasks showed significantly higher Openness and lower Assertiveness compared to others, mirroring relationships found between personality, participation, and performance among all participants. Participation and performance during training was clearly biased toward individuals with particular personalities (i.e. high Openness, low Assertiveness). Results are discussed in light of the need for careful interpretation of comparative data on animal cognition and the need for researchers to take personality selection bias more seriously.
Animal Cognition Animal Cognition Look
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Springer-Verlag |
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English |
Summary Language |
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Original Title |
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Series Editor |
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Series Title |
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Abbreviated Series Title |
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Series Volume |
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Series Issue |
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Edition |
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ISSN |
1435-9448 |
ISBN |
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Medium |
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Area |
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Expedition |
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Conference |
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Notes |
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Approved |
no |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5696 |
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