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	Author	Beck, B.B.
	Title	Chimpocentrism: Bias in cognitive ethology			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1982	Publication	Journal of Human Evolution	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	11	Issue	1	Pages	3-17
	Keywords	herring gull; chimpanzee; cognition; tool-use; shell-dropping; mollusk; predation
	Abstract	Herring gulls drop hard-shelled mollusks and hermit crab-inhabited molluskan prey in order to break the shells and gain access to the edible interior. A field study of predatory shell dropping on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, U.S.A. showed that the gulls usually drop the same shell repeatedly, orient directly to dropping sites that are invisible from the point at which the mollusks are captured, drop preferentially on hard surfaces, adjust dropping heights to suit the area and elasticity of the substrate, orient directly into the wind while dropping, sever the large defensive cheliped of hermit crabs before consumption, and rinse prey that is difficult to swallow. Proficiency in prey dropping is acquired through dropping objects in play, trial-and-error learning, and perhaps, observation learning. Observable attributes of predatory shell-dropping support inferences that the gulls are capable of extended concentration, purposefulness, mental representation of spatially and temporally displaced environmental features, cognitive mapping, cognitive modeling, selectivity, and strategy formation. Identical cognitive processes have been inferred to underlie the most sophisticated forms of chimpanzee tool-use. Advanced cognitive capacities are not restricted to chimpanzees and other pongids, and are not associated uniquely with tool use. The chimpocentric bias should be abandoned, and reconstructions of the evolution of intelligence should be modified accordingly.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4414
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	Author	Chalmeau, R.; Gallo, A.
	Title	Social constraints determine what is learned in the chimpanzee			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1993	Publication	Behavioural Processes	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Process.
	Volume	28	Issue	3	Pages	173-179
	Keywords	Operant conditioning; Social influence; Individual strategy; Chimpanzee
	Abstract	A group of six chimpanzees was placed in a social learning situation, without training. The learning task was an operant conditioning situation; that is, a subject had to pull two handles simultaneously to cause a piece of fruit to fall into the cage. Only three individuals acquired the operant behaviour. For the operant individuals, social influences on the expression of the learning task were then examined; the dominant chimpanzee during feeding had an inhibiting effect when close to the operant subjects. Depending on the subject, social factors may influence not only the specific expression of what is learnt, but also the nature of what is learnt. Chimpanzees appear to experience situations differently: they develop an individual problem-solving strategy according to their social relationships even if the experimental procedure is the same for all.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	569
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	Author	de Waal, F.B.M.; Luttrell, L.M.
	Title	Mechanisms of social reciprocity in three primate species: Symmetrical relationship characteristics or cognition?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1988	Publication	Ethology and Sociobiology	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	9	Issue	2–4	Pages	101-118
	Keywords	Reciprocity; Agonistic intervention; Cognition; Chimpanzees; Macaques
	Abstract	Agonistic intervention behavior was observed in captive groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and stumptail monkeys (M. arctoides). Reciprocity correlations of interventions were determined while removing from the data the effects of several symmetrical relationship characteristics, that is, matrillineal kinship, proximity relations, and same-sex combination. It was considered likely that if significant reciprocity persisted after controlling for these characteristics, the reciprocity was based on cognitive mechanisms. Statistical significance was tested by means of recently developed matrix permutation procedures. All three species exhibited significant reciprocity with regard to beneficial interventions, even after controlling for symmetrical traits. Harmful interventions were, however, reciprocal among chimpanzees only. This species showed a “revenge system”, that is, if A often intervened against B, B did the same to A. In contrast, both macaque species showed significantly inversed reciprocity in their harmful interventions: if A often intervened against B, B rarely intervened against A. Further analysis indicates that the strict hierarchy of macaques prevents them from achieving complete reciprocity. Compared to chimpanzees, macaques rarely intervene against higher ranking group members. The observed contrast can be partially explained on the basis of differences in available space, as indicated by a comparison of indoor and outdoor living conditions for the chimpanzee colony. Yet, even when such spatial factors are taken into account, substantial behavior differences between chimpanzees and macaques remain.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0162-3095	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5809
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	Author	Hopkins, W.D.; Taglialatela, J.P.; Leavens, D.A.
	Title	Chimpanzees differentially produce novel vocalizations to capture the attention of a human			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	2	Pages	281-286
	Keywords	acoustic signals; chimpanzee; cognition; Pan troglodytes; vocal communication
	Abstract	Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, produce numerous species-atypical signals when raised in captivity. We examined contextual elements of the use of two of these vocal signals, the `raspberry' and the extended grunt. Our results demonstrate that these vocalizations are not elicited by the presence of food, but instead function as attention-getting signals. These findings reveal a heretofore underappreciated category of animal signals: attention-getting sounds produced in novel environmental circumstances. The invention and use of species-atypical signals, considered in relation to group differences in signalling repertoires in apes in their natural habitats, may index a generative capacity in these hominoid species without obvious corollary in other primate species.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2889
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	Author	Koski, S.E.; Sterck, E.H.M.
	Title	Triadic postconflict affiliation in captive chimpanzees: does consolation console?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	1	Pages	133-142
	Keywords	chimpanzee; consolation; Pan troglodytes; postconflict affiliation
	Abstract	Consolation is a triadic postconflict interaction between a conflict participant and an uninvolved third party. The term consolation implies stress alleviation. Consequently, consolation may be an effective mechanism to alleviate postconflict stress. However, this assumption has not been tested. We tested whether consolation alleviates postconflict stress in captive chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. In addition, we examined whether consolation is a substitute postconflict interaction for reconciliation. We collected 643 postconflict-matched control pairs on aggressees and 576 on aggressors. Consolation occurred equally frequently with aggressees and aggressors. However, we found no evidence that consolation alleviated stress, regardless of the identity of the consoler. In addition, consolation was also directed to conflict participants with no evident postconflict stress. Furthermore, we found no evidence for consolation being a substitute for reconciliation. The occurrence of consolation did not depend on the occurrence of reconciliation and consolation was not more prevalent with the sex class that reconciled less often or had the highest postconflict stress levels. We conclude that consolation is a postconflict interaction in its own right, the function of which is not likely to be connected to stress alleviation of the consoled individual. We propose that the function of triadic postconflict affiliation, previously labelled as consolation, should be reassessed with regard to the third parties' reasons to affiliate with conflict opponents.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	306
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	Author	Köhler, W.
	Title	Intelligenzprüfungen an Menschenaffen			Type	Book Whole
	Year	1921	Publication		Abbreviated Journal
	Volume		Issue		Pages
	Keywords	Animal intelligence , Chimpanzees , Primates , Psychology
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Springer	Place of Publication	Berlin	Editor
	Language	German	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5752
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	Author	Lonsdorf, E.V.; Ross, S.R.; Linick, S.A.; Milstein, M.S.; Melber, T.N.
	Title	An experimental, comparative investigation of tool use in chimpanzees and gorillas			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2009	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	77	Issue	5	Pages	1119-1126
	Keywords	chimpanzee; gorilla; Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Pan troglodytes; social structure; tool use
	Abstract	Studies of ape tool use have been conducted in captivity since the early 1900s and in the wild since the 1960s. Chimpanzees are the most prolific tool users among the apes, and are known to use more tools than any other nonhuman animal. In contrast, reports of gorilla tool use are rare both in wild and captive settings. Studies of the processes involved in tool use learning have been limited in the wild by the lack of ability to control several unpredictable variables, and in captivity by tool use opportunities that are often presented in non-naturalistic contexts. We attempted to address both of these limitations by providing naïve subjects with a naturalistic tool use device (built to simulate a termite mound) while housed in a more natural social setting to approximate how learning would occur in the wild. Both gorillas and chimpanzees participated in the experiment to allow comparative analyses of acquisition of tool behaviour and the factors that may affect acquisition. Both species showed low frequencies of interaction with the mound in the baseline condition, before baiting with a food reward. Once baited, chimpanzees both attempted and succeeded to extract the reward more quickly than did gorillas. The number of social group members at the mound was significantly higher for chimpanzees than for gorillas and may have affected skill acquisition. We advocate that comparative approaches to skill acquisition and learning are valuable, but that researchers need to be cognizant of species differences in social structure that may affect results.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5858
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	Author	McCarthy, M.S.; Jensvold, M.L.A.; Fouts, D.H.
	Title	Use of gesture sequences in captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) play			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2013	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	16	Issue	3	Pages	471-481
	Keywords	Gestural communication; Attentional state; Chimpanzee; Gesture sequence
	Abstract	This study examined the use of sensory modalities relative to a partner’s behavior in gesture sequences during captive chimpanzee play at the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute. We hypothesized that chimpanzees would use visual gestures toward attentive recipients and auditory/tactile gestures toward inattentive recipients. We also hypothesized that gesture sequences would be more prevalent toward unresponsive rather than responsive recipients. The chimpanzees used significantly more auditory/tactile rather than visual gestures first in sequences with both attentive and inattentive recipients. They rarely used visual gestures toward inattentive recipients. Auditory/tactile gestures were effective with and used with both attentive and inattentive recipients. Recipients responded significantly more to single gestures than to first gestures in sequences. Sequences often indicated that recipients did not respond to initial gestures, whereas effective single gestures made more gestures unnecessary. The chimpanzees thus gestured appropriately relative to a recipient’s behavior and modified their interactions according to contextual social cues.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Springer-Verlag	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5665
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	Author	Mitani, J.C.
	Title	Male chimpanzees form enduring and equitable social bonds			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2009	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	77	Issue	3	Pages	633-640
	Keywords	chimpanzee; Pan troglodytes; social behaviour; social relationship
	Abstract	Controversy exists regarding the nature of primate social relationships. While individual primates are frequently hypothesized to form enduring social bonds with conspecifics, recent studies suggest that relationships are labile, with animals interacting only over short periods to satisfy their immediate needs. Here I use data collected over 10 years on a community of chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, to investigate whether male chimpanzees establish long-term social relationships and to determine the factors that affect variation in relationship quality and the stability of social bonds. Kinship and dominance rank influenced the quality of relationships. Maternal brothers and males of the same dominance rank class groomed each other more equitably than did unrelated males and males that were dissimilar in rank. In addition, males that formed strong social bonds groomed more equitably than did males that displayed weaker bonds. Social bonds were stable over time, with relationships in one year predicting those in subsequent years. Kinship and the quality of social relationships affected bond stability. Maternal half siblings and males that groomed each other equitably maintained longer-lasting bonds than did nonkin and males that groomed each other unevenly. Virtually all of the males established at least one enduring relationship with another individual. The most enduring bonds formed between a few pairs of maternal brothers and dyads that maintained balanced grooming interactions. These results indicate that male chimpanzees maintain long-lasting and equitable social bonds whose formation is affected by maternal kinship and the quality of social relationships.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5164
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	Author	Newton-Fisher, N.E.; Lee, P.C.
	Title	Grooming reciprocity in wild male chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2011	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	81	Issue	2	Pages	439-446
	Keywords	altruism; biological market theory; Budongo; chimpanzee; grooming; Pan troglodytes
	Abstract	Understanding cooperation between unrelated individuals remains a central problem in animal behaviour; evolutionary mechanisms are debated, and the importance of reciprocity has been questioned. Biological market theory makes specific predictions about the occurrence of reciprocity in social groups; applied to the social grooming of mammals, it predicts reciprocity in the absence of other benefits for which grooming can be exchanged. Considerable effort has been made to test this grooming trade model in nonhuman primates; such studies show mixed results, but may be confounded by kin effects. We examined patterns of reciprocity within and across bouts, and tested predictions of the grooming trade model, among wild male chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes: a system with negligible kin effects. In accord with the model's expectations, we found that some grooming was directed by lower- to higher-ranked individuals, and that, on average, higher-ranked individuals groomed more reciprocally. We found no support, however, for a prediction that more reciprocity should occur between individuals close in rank. For most dyads, reciprocity of effort occurred through unbalanced participation in grooming bouts, but reciprocity varied considerably between dyads and only a small proportion showed strongly reciprocal grooming. Despite this, each male had at least one reciprocal grooming relationship. In bouts where both individuals groomed, effort was matched through mutual grooming, not alternating roles. Our results provide mixed support for the current grooming trade, biological market model, and suggest that it needs to incorporate risks of currency inflation and cheating for species where reciprocity can be achieved through repeated dyadic interactions.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5329
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