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Author |
McGuigan, M.P.; Wilson, A.M. |
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Title |
The effect of gait and digital flexor muscle activation on limb compliance in the forelimb of the horse Equus caballus |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
The Journal of Experimental Biology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Biol |
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Volume  |
206 |
Issue |
Pt 8 |
Pages |
1325-1336 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Gait/*physiology; Horses/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Muscle Contraction/*physiology; Running |
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Abstract |
A horse's legs are compressed during the stance phase, storing and then returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units. The arrangement of the muscle-tendon units around the lever-like joints means that as the leg shortens the muscle-tendon units are stretched. The forelimb anatomy means that the leg can be conceptually divided into two springs: the proximal spring, from the scapula to the elbow, and the distal spring, from the elbow to the foot. In this paper we report the results of a series of experiments testing the hypothesis that there is minimal scope for muscle contraction in either spring to adjust limb compliance. Firstly, we demonstrate that the distal, passive leg spring changes length by 127 mm (range 106-128 mm) at gallop and the proximal spring by 12 mm (9-15 mm). Secondly, we demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between limb force and metacarpo-phalangeal (MCP) joint angle that is minimally influenced by digital flexor muscle activation in vitro or as a function of gait in vivo. Finally, we determined the relationship between MCP joint angle and vertical ground-reaction force at trot and then predicted the forelimb peak vertical ground-reaction force during a 12 m s(-1) gallop on a treadmill. These were 12.79 N kg(-1) body mass (BM) (range 12.07-13.73 N kg(-1) BM) for the lead forelimb and 15.23 N kg(-1) BM (13.51-17.10 N kg(-1) BM) for the non-lead forelimb. |
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Structure and Motion Laboratory, Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK. m.p.mcguigan@leeds.ac.uk |
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0022-0949 |
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PMID:12624168 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3655 |
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Author |
Pinchbeck, G.L.; Clegg, P.D.; Proudman, C.J.; Morgan, K.L.; French, N.P. |
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Title |
Case-control investigation of the factors affecting the risk of horses falling during steeplechase racing in the UK |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
The Veterinary Record |
Abbreviated Journal |
Vet. Rec. |
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Volume |
155 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
11-15 |
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Keywords |
Accidental Falls/*prevention & control/*statistics & numerical data; Animals; Athletic Injuries/epidemiology/etiology/prevention & control/*veterinary; Case-Control Studies; England/epidemiology; Horses/*injuries; Risk Factors; Running/*injuries |
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A concurrent case-control study of 12 UK racecourses was made between March 1, 2000, and August 31, 2001, to identify and quantify the factors associated with the risk of horses falling in steeplechase races. Cases were defined as a jumping effort at a steeplechase fence that resulted in a fall and controls were defined as a successful jumping effort over any steeplechase fence at any of the 12 racecourses within 14 days before or after the case fall. Information on the horse, the jockey and the race were collected and all the fences on all the courses were surveyed. Conditional logistic regression was used to examine the relationships between the predictor variables and the risk of falling. There was one fall per 254 jumping efforts. The risk of a horse falling decreased the more times it had raced on a particular racecourse. The number of fences, the distance from the previous fence and the nature of the previous fence also affected the risk of falling. If the previous fence was a water jump the risk of falling increased; fences that were sited on flat or slight uphill gradients (up to approximately 1 in 25) were associated with a lower risk of horses falling than downhill fences, and higher takeoff boards were associated with a higher risk of falling. |
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Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst, Neston CH64 7TE |
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0042-4900 |
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PMID:15264483 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3773 |
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Author |
Pinchbeck, G.L.; Clegg, P.D.; Proudman, C.J.; Morgan, K.L.; French, N.P. |
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Title |
Case-control study to investigate risk factors for horse falls in hurdle racing in England and Wales |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
The Veterinary Record |
Abbreviated Journal |
Vet. Rec. |
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Volume |
152 |
Issue |
19 |
Pages |
583-587 |
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Keywords |
Accidental Falls/*statistics & numerical data; Animals; Athletic Injuries/epidemiology/etiology/*veterinary; Case-Control Studies; England/epidemiology; Horses/*injuries; Risk Factors; Running/injuries; Wales/epidemiology |
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Between March 1, 2000 and August 31, 2001, a case-control study was conducted on 12 racecourses in England and Wales to identify and quantify the risk factors associated with horse falls in hurdle races. The cases and controls were defined so that variables relating to the horse, the jockey, the race and racecourse, and the jump could be considered. The cases were defined as a jumping effort at a hurdle flight that resulted in a fall, and the controls were defined as a successful jump over a hurdle at any of the 12 racecourses within 14 days before or after the case fall. Conditional logistic regression was used to examine the univariable and multivariable relationships between the predictor variables and the risk of falling. The risk of falling was significantly associated with the position of the jump in the race, and with the distance and speed of the race. A horse's previous racing experience and history were also significantly associated with the risk of falling and horses participating in their first hurdle race were at almost five times greater risk of falling than horses that had hurdled before. |
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Epidemiology Group, Department of Veterinary Clinical Science and Animal Husbandry, University of Liverpool, Leahurst, Neston CH64 7TE |
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0042-4900 |
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PMID:12762486 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3782 |
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Author |
Elsaesser, F.; Klobasa, F.; Ellendorff, F. |
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Title |
ACTH stimulation test for the determination of salivary cortisol and of cortisol responses as markers of the training status/fitness of warm-blooded sports horses] |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
DTW. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift |
Abbreviated Journal |
Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr |
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Volume |
108 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
31-36 |
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone/*diagnostic use; Animals; Health; Horses/*physiology; Hydrocortisone/*analysis/*secretion; Male; Orchiectomy; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Running; Saliva/*chemistry; Walking |
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Abstract |
Previous work (Marc et al., 2000) suggested that plasma cortisol responses to treadmill exercise or ACTH injection are a reliable marker for performance evaluation in warmblood horses. For practical purposes blood sample collections and treadmill exercise tests are somewhat troublesome and time consuming. The goal of this study was thus to evaluate the use of saliva for cortisol determination (by direct EIA) as a marker for performance and to investigate the reliability and repeatability of plasma cortisol responses to a single i.v. injection of ACTH (50 micrograms or 250 micrograms). Furthermore, the effect of training horses for 8 weeks 3 times per week covering the same distance (increasing from 3.5 km during the first week to 8 km during the last week) either by trotting (approximately 240 m/min) or by cantering (375 m/min) was investigated. For this purpose initially ten four-year-old Hannovarian geldings, all reared in the same State stud, were used. Mean overall correlation between salivary cortisol and plasma cortisol concentrations was 0.64 when samples of various points of time were used. However, in spite of attempts to standardize saliva sample collection, correlation between salivary cortisol levels and plasma cortisol levels at distinct points of time in different tests were low and significant (r = 0.85, p < 0.02) only in one test. Thus, salivary cortisol measurements for diagnostic purposes are not reliable or useful. The repeatability of plasma cortisol responses to ACTH for untrained and trained horses were r = 0.86 and r = 0.8 respectively (p < or = 0.01 and p < or = 0.05 respectively). Training horses either by trotting or cantering did not affect the cortisol response either to treadmill exercise or to stimulation by ACTH. It is concluded that the relationship between salivary cortisol levels and plasma cortisol levels is not close enough to allow the use of salivary cortisol determination as marker of the training status/fitness of horses. The repeatability of the cortisol response to ACTH is similar to the cortisol response to treadmill exercise. Based on plasma cortisol responses to ACTH or treadmill exercise training horses by cantering at low speed is not superior to training by trotting for the fitness of horses. |
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Institut fur Tierzucht und Tierverhalten Mariensee (FAL), Holtystrasse 10, 31535 Neustadt. elsaesser@tzv.fal.de |
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German |
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ACTH Stimulationstest und Bestimmung von Cortisol im Blut und Speichel zur Bewertung des Trainingszustands/der Kondition beim Warmblutpferd |
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0341-6593 |
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Notes |
PMID:11232423 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
4053 |
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Author |
Young, L.E.; Rogers, K.; Wood, J.L.N. |
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Title |
Left ventricular size and systolic function in Thoroughbred racehorses and their relationships to race performance |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985) |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Appl Physiol |
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Volume |
99 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
1278-1285 |
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Keywords |
*Adaptation, Physiological; Aging/physiology; Animal Husbandry; Animals; *Echocardiography; Female; Heart/*physiology; Heart Ventricles; Horses/*physiology; Male; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Running/*physiology; Stroke Volume; Systole; Task Performance and Analysis |
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Abstract |
Cardiac morphology in human athletes is known to differ, depending on the sports-specific endurance component of their events, whereas anecdotes abound about superlative athletes with large hearts. As the heart determines stroke volume and maximum O(2) uptake in mammals, we undertook a study to test the hypothesis that the morphology of the equine heart would differ between trained horses, depending on race type, and that left ventricular size would be greatest in elite performers. Echocardiography was performed in 482 race-fit Thoroughbreds engaged in either flat (1,000-2,500 m) or jump racing (3,200-6,400 m). Body weight and sex-adjusted measures of left ventricular size were largest in horses engaged in jump racing over fixed fences, compared with horses running shorter distances on the flat (range 8-16%). The observed differences in cardiac morphologies suggest that subtle differences in training and competition result in cardiac adaptations that are appropriate to the endurance component of the horses' event. Derived left ventricular mass was strongly associated with published rating (quality) in horses racing over longer distances in jump races (P < or = 0.001), but less so for horses in flat races. Rather, left ventricular ejection fraction and left ventricular mass combined were positively associated with race rating in older flat racehorses running over sprint (<1,408 m) and longer distances (>1,408 m), explaining 25-35% of overall variation in performance, as well as being closely associated with performance in longer races over jumps (23%). These data provide the first direct evidence that cardiac size influences athletic performance in a group of mammalian running athletes. |
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Centre for Equine Studies, Animal Health Trust, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK. lesley.young@aht.org.uk |
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8750-7587 |
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PMID:15920096 |
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no |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3768 |
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Author |
Verheyen, K.; Price, J.; Lanyon, L.; Wood, J. |
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Title |
Exercise distance and speed affect the risk of fracture in racehorses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Bone |
Abbreviated Journal |
Bone |
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Volume |
39 |
Issue |
6 |
Pages |
1322-1330 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Case-Control Studies; Cohort Studies; England; Exertion; Female; Fractures, Bone/etiology/*veterinary; Horse Diseases/*etiology; Horses/*injuries; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/adverse effects/methods; Poisson Distribution; Prospective Studies; Regression Analysis; Risk Factors; Running/injuries/physiology |
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In order to gain insight into those training regimens that can minimise the risk of fracture in athletic populations, we conducted a large epidemiological study in racehorses. Thoroughbred racehorses provide a suitable model for studying fracture development and exercise-related risk factors in physically active populations. They represent a homogeneous population, undertaking intensive exercise programmes that are sufficiently heterogeneous to determine those factors that influence injury risk. Daily exercise information was recorded for a cohort of 1178 thoroughbreds that were monitored for up to 2 years. A total of 148 exercise-induced fractures occurred in the study population. Results from a nested case-control study showed a strong interactive effect of exercise distances at different speeds on fracture risk. Horses that exceeded 44 km at canter (< or =14 m/s) and 6 km at gallop (>14 m/s) in a 30-day period were at particularly increased risk of fracture. These distances equate to ca. 7700 bone loading cycles at canter and 880 loading cycles at gallop. Fifty-six fractures occurred in the subset of study horses that were followed since entering training as yearlings, when skeletally immature (n = 335). Cohort analysis of this data set showed that, in previously untrained bones, accumulation of canter exercise increased the risk of fracture (P < or = 0.01), whereas accumulation of high-speed gallop exercise had a protective effect (P < 0.01). However, increasing distances at canter and gallop in short time periods (up to one month) were associated with an increasing fracture risk. All training exercise involves a balance between the risk of fracture inherent in exposure to loading and the beneficial effect that loading has by stimulating bone cells to produce a more robust architecture. Results from our study provide important epidemiological evidence of the effects of physical exercise on bone adaptation and injury risk and can be used to inform the design of safer exercise regimens in physically active populations. |
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Epidemiology Unit, Animal Health Trust, Newmarket, United Kingdom. kverheyen@rvc.ac.uk |
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8756-3282 |
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PMID:16926125 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
4030 |
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Author |
Boden, L.A.; Anderson, G.A.; Charles, J.A.; Morgan, K.L.; Morton, J.M.; Parkin, T.D.H.; Slocombe, R.F.; Clarke, A.F. |
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Title |
Risk of fatality and causes of death of Thoroughbred horses associated with racing in Victoria, Australia: 1989-2004 |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
38 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
312-318 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Athletic Injuries/epidemiology/mortality/*veterinary; *Cause of Death; Female; *Floors and Floorcoverings; Horses/*injuries; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*adverse effects; Risk Factors; Running/injuries; Safety; Sports; Victoria |
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Abstract |
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Determining the risk of fatality of Thoroughbred horses while racing is essential to assess the impact of intervention measures designed to minimise such fatalities. OBJECTIVES: To measure the risk of racehorse fatality in jump and flat starts on racecourses in Victoria, Australia, over a 15 year period and to determine proportional mortality rates for specific causes of death. METHODS: All fatalities of Thoroughbred horses that occurred during or within 24 h of a race were identified from a database. The risk of a start resulting in a racehorse fatality in all races and within flat and jump races, proportional mortality rates, population attributable risk, population attributable fraction and risk ratios were calculated along with 95% confidence intervals. Poisson regression was also performed to estimate risk ratios. RESULTS: There were 514 fatalities over the 15 year period; 316 in flat races and 198 in jump races. The risk of fatality was 0.44 per 1000 flat starts and 8.3 per 1000 jump starts (18.9 x greater). The risk of fatality on city tracks was 1.1 per 1000 starts whereas on country tracks it was 0.57 per 1000 starts. Of the 316 fatalities in flat races, 73.4% were due to limb injury, 2.5% to cranial or vertebral injury and 19.0% were sudden deaths. Of the 198 fatalities in jump races, 68.7% were due to limb injury, 16.2% to cranial or vertebral injury and 3.5% were sudden deaths. The risk of fatality in flat starts increased between 1989 and 2004 but the risk in jump starts remained unchanged over the 15 year period. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of fatality in flat starts was lower in Victoria than North America and the UK but the risk in jump starts was greater. Catastrophic limb injury was the major reason for racehorse fatality in Victoria but there was a larger percentage of sudden deaths than has been reported overseas. The risk of fatality in jump starts remained constant over the study period despite jump racing reviews that recommended changes to hurdle and steeple races to improve safety. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study provides important benchmarks for the racing industry to monitor racetrack fatalities and evaluate intervention strategies. |
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Department of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:16866197 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3761 |
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Author |
Parsons, K.J.; Wilson, A.M. |
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Title |
The use of MP3 recorders to log data from equine hoof mounted accelerometers |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
38 |
Issue |
7 |
Pages |
675-680 |
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Keywords |
Acceleration; Animals; Equipment and Supplies/standards/*veterinary; Hoof and Claw/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; Reproducibility of Results; Running/physiology; Sensitivity and Specificity |
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Abstract |
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDy: MP3 recorders are readily available, small, lightweight and low cost, providing the potential for logging analogue hoof mounted accelerometer signals for the characterisation of equine locomotion. These, however, require testing in practice. OBJECTIVES: To test whether 1) multiple MP3 recorders can maintain synchronisation, giving the ability to synchronise independent recorders for the logging of multiple limbs simultaneously; and 2) features of a foot mounted accelerometer signal attributable to foot-on and foot-off can be accurately identified from horse foot mounted accelerometers logged directly into an MP3 recorder. METHODS: Three experiments were performed: 1) Maintenance of synchronisation was assessed by counting the number of samples recorded by each of 4 MP3 recorders while mounted on a trotting horse and over 2 consecutive 30 min periods in 8 recorders on a bench. 2) Foot-on and foot-off times obtained from manual transcription of MP3 logged data and directly logged accelerometer signal were compared. 3) MP3/accelerometer acquisition units were used to log accelerometer signals from racehorses during extended training sessions. RESULTS: Mean absolute error of synchronisation between MP3 recorders was 10 samples per million (compared to mean number of samples, range 1-32 samples per million). Error accumulation showed a linear correlation with time. Features attributable to foot on and foot off were equally identifiable from the MP3 recorded signal over a range of equine gaits. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple MP3 recorders can be synchronised and used as a relatively cheap, robust, reliable and accurate logging system when combined with an accelerometer and external battery for the specific application of the measurement of stride timing variables across the range of equine gaits during field locomotion. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Footfall timings can be used to identify intervals between the fore and hind contacts, the identification of diagonal advanced placement and to calculate stride timing variables (stance time, protraction time and stride time). These parameters are invaluable for the characterisation and assessment of equine locomotion. |
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Structure and Motion Laboratory, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK |
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0425-1644 |
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Notes |
PMID:17228585 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
4022 |
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Author |
Ryan, C.T.; Schaer, B.L.D.; Nunamaker, D.M. |
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Title |
A novel wireless data acquisition system for the measurement of hoof accelerations in the exercising horse |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
38 |
Issue |
7 |
Pages |
671-674 |
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Keywords |
*Acceleration; Animals; Biomechanics; Equipment and Supplies/*veterinary; Hoof and Claw/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Kinetics; Musculoskeletal Physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; Running/physiology |
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Abstract |
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: A device is needed to safely and wirelessly evaluate accelerations experienced by the horse hoof under a variety of surface conditions with the horse exercising at training or racing speeds. OBJECTIVES: To develop a miniaturised wireless data acquisition system (WDAS) which reliably records hoof accelerations and the times over which they occur in a minimally invasive manner in the exercising Thoroughbred. METHODS: The following criteria were set for device development: production of a lightweight and minimally invasive system, which provides an adequate acceleration range, appropriate frequency response to capture high speed events, and compatibility with a low power wireless telemetry system. Following device development, the WDAS was calibrated, and tested in 6 Thoroughbred horses over a variety of surfaces. RESULTS: Collection of acceleration in seven trials using 6 horses over a variety of surfaces resulted in repeatable acceleration data with respect to the overall characteristic shape of the impact profile. Impact accelerations varied with surface, ranging 34.8-191.7 g. Accelerations on take off were in a similar range, although higher in some trials. Peak impact accelerations tended to larger over the grass paddock surface, than either the indoor arena or the dirt track. During dirt track trials, accelerations on take-off were often comparably larger than those observed on impact within the same footfall. CONCLUSIONS: This study reports the development of a wireless system that successfully measures hoof acceleration in a minimally invasive manner over a variety of surface and exercise conditions. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The WDAS will be used in further studies to evaluate various components of the horse-racetrack interface, in an attempt to identify risk factors for musculoskeletal injury in the Thoroughbred racehorse. |
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Richard S. Reynolds, Jr. Comparative Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:17228584 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4023 |
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| Permanent link to this record |
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Schaer, B.L.D.; Ryan, C.T.; Boston, R.C.; Nunamaker, D.M. |
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The horse-racetrack interface: a preliminary study on the effect of shoeing on impact trauma using a novel wireless data acquisition system |
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2006 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
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Equine Vet J |
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38 |
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7 |
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664-670 |
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Animals; Equipment and Supplies/veterinary; Forelimb/injuries/physiology; Hindlimb/injuries/physiology; Hoof and Claw/*physiology; Horses/*injuries/*physiology; Locomotion/physiology; Muscle, Skeletal/injuries/*physiology; *Musculoskeletal Physiology; Musculoskeletal System/*injuries; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; Risk Factors; Running/physiology; Shoes |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There is a need to determine accelerations acting on the equine hoof under field conditions in order to better assess the risks for orthopaedic health associated with shoeing practices and/or surface conditions. OBJECTIVES: To measure the acceleration profiles generated in Thoroughbred racehorses exercising at high speeds over dirt racetracks and specifically to evaluate the effect of a toe grab shoe compared to a flat racing plate, using a newly developed wireless data acquisition system (WDAS). METHODS: Four Thoroughbred racehorses in training and racing were used. Based on previous trials, each horse served as its own control for speed trials, with shoe type as variable. Horses were evaluated at speeds ranging from 12.0-17.3 m/sec. Impact accelerations, acceleration on break over and take-off, and temporal stride parameters were calculated. Impact injury scores were also determined, using peak accelerations and the time over which they occurred. RESULTS: Recorded accelerations for the resultant vector (all horses all speeds) calculated from triaxial accelerometers ranged 96.3-251.1 g, depending on the phase of the impact event. An association was observed between shoe type and change in acceleration in individual horses, with 2 horses having increased g on initial impact with toe grab shoes in place. In the final impact phase, one horse had an increase of 110 g while wearing toe grab shoes. Increased accelerations were also observed on break over in 2 horses while wearing toe grab shoes. CONCLUSIONS: Shoe type may change impact accelerations significantly in an individual horse and could represent increased risk for injury. Further work is needed to determine if trends exist across a population. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The WDAS could be used for performance evaluation in individual horses to evaluate any component of the horse-performance surface interface, with the goal of minimising risk and optimising performance. |
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Richard S. Reynolds Jr. Comparative Orthopedic Research Laboratory, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:17228583 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4024 |
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| Permanent link to this record |
