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Author VanDierendonck, M.C.; de Vries, H.; Schilder, M.B.H.
Title An Analysis of Dominance, Its Behavioural Parameters and Possible Determinants in a Herd of Icelandic orses in Captivity Type Journal Article
Year 1995 Publication Netherlands Journal of Zoology Abbreviated Journal Netherl. J. Zool.
Volume 45 Issue 3-4 Pages 362-385
Keywords Dominance; rank order; horses; Icelandic horses.
Abstract Th e applicability of the concept of dominance was investigated in a captive herd of &#63045;&#63049; Icelandic

horses and &#63048; ponies of diff erent breeds. Eight out of &#63045;&#63043; behaviours possibly related

to dominance occurred frequently enough to be investigated in detail. For these eight agonistic

behaviours the coverage, the unidirectionality in the exchange, and the degree of

transitivity (Landau`s linearity index) were calculated. Four off ensive behaviours, together

with avoidance, were suitable for further analysis with regard to dominance. Th e patterns

of asymmetries with which these behaviours were exchanged were suffi ciently similar as to

justify the application of the dominance concept and to construct a (nearly) linear dominance

hierarchy. Th e rank order of the castrated stallions was completely linear, the hierarchy

of the mares was almost completely linear. Th e results suggest that off ensive and defensive

aggressive behaviours should be treated separately and that the concept of dominance

is applicable. However, ritualized formal dominance signals between adult horses appear to

be (almost) absent. Th e rank positions of the individuals were correlated with age and residency

in the herd but not with height. Middle ranking horses tended to be more frequently

in the close vicinity of another horse than high ranking or low ranking horses. Over and

above this correlation at the individual level, it was found that pairs of horses close in rank

to each other were more often also spatially close to each other. Being in oestrus did not infl

uence the dominance relationships between mares. For castrated stallions the rank positions

were correlated with the age at which they were castrated. Th is suggests that in male

horses experience prior to neutering infl uences the behaviour afterwards.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 440
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Author R. A. Hopkins
Title CALIFORNIA WILDLIFE HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS SYSTEM Type Manuscript
Year Publication Abbreviated Journal
Volume M174 Issue Pages
Keywords Feral Horse Equus caballus
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 476
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Author Seaman, S.C.; Davidson, H.P.B.; Waran, N.K.
Title How reliable is temperament assessment in the domestic horse (Equus caballus)? Type Journal Article
Year 2002 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 78 Issue 2-4 Pages 175-191
Keywords Temperament assessment; Behavioural tests; Horses; Active and passive copers; Factor analysis
Abstract Differences in behavioural characteristics between individuals of the same species are often described as being due to the temperament of the individuals. These differences can have enormous implications for welfare with some individuals apparently being able to adapt to environmental challenge more easily than others. Such differences have resulted in animals often being described as either `active' copers, which try to escape from or remove an aversive stimulus, or `passive' copers, which show no outward signs of a situation being aversive, thus, appearing to be unaffected. Tests previously developed to assess the temperament of animals have been criticised for several reasons. Behaviour is often recorded and categorised using methods that are not objective and tests are generally carried out once with no consideration of whether or not behavioural responses are consistent over time. This study takes these factors into account. The behaviour of 33 horses was recorded in three types of test--an arena test, response to a person and response to an object. In order to test whether or not responses were consistent over time, the tests were repeated three times with an average of 9 days between trials. Test results were validated using responses from questionnaires completed by the farm team leader. The data were analysed using an initial principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis. The horses were found to behave consistently over the three trials in their responses in the arena test. The responses to the person test and the object test were similar to each other; however, these responses were not consistent over trials. The behaviour in the arena test was unable to be used to make a prediction of behaviour in the person and object tests and vice versa. The responses shown by the horses did not enable them to be categorised as either active or passive copers. Behavioural responses in the tests were not predictive of the response to a startle test (water spray), nor could they be used to predict status or response to being reintroduced to the group after testing. There was no relationship between the responses in the tests and the ratings given by the farm team leader. It was concluded that horses vary widely in their responses to artificial behavioural tests, with only the responses to an open-field arena test being consistent over time, and therefore, the only type of test which can indicate some core factor of temperament.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 520
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Author Murphy, J.; Sutherland, A.; Arkins, S.
Title Idiosyncratic motor laterality in the horse Type Journal Article
Year 2005 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 91 Issue 3-4 Pages 297-310
Keywords Horse; Idiosyncratic motor behaviour; Laterality; Sidedness
Abstract Idiosyncratic motor behaviour was investigated during four experimental procedures in 40 horses (males = 20, females = 20) to establish if horses revealed evidence of significant right or left laterality. The experimental procedures included (1) detection of the preferred foreleg to initiate movement (walk or trot), (2) obstacle avoidance within a passageway (right or left), (3) obstacle avoidance when ridden and (4) idiosyncratic motor bias when rolling. The influence of the horses' sex on both the direction and the degree of the laterality was explored within and between experimental procedures. The findings showed that the direction, but not the degree of idiosyncratic motor preference in the horses was strongly sex-related. Male horses exhibited significantly more (t = 3.74, d.f. = 79, P < 0.001) left lateralised responses and female horses exhibited significantly more (t = -6.35, d.f. = 79, P < 0.01) right lateralised responses. There was also significant positive correlation (P < 0.05) between four of six possible inter-experimental relationships. The results suggest two discrete trends of laterality associated with the sex of the horse. The primary cause of idiosyncratic motor laterality may be genetically predetermined, influenced by environmental factors or a combination of these two and the current findings may support the development of sex-specific training schedules for the horse. Further, work in this area might assist in defining the mechanisms of brain hemisphere lateralisation and allocation of cognitive function in the horse.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 527
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Author Lindberg, A.C.; Kelland, A.; Nicol, C.J.
Title Effects of observational learning on acquisition of an operant response in horses Type Journal Article
Year 1999 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 61 Issue 3 Pages 187-199
Keywords Horse; Observational learning; Stereotyped behaviour; Operant behaviour; Breed influence; Age influence
Abstract The effect of observational learning on the acquisition of an operant response was examined in eighteen riding horses and ponies. The test horses were randomly divided into three groups of six and individually exposed to one of three treatments. An additional horse was trained as a demonstrator, to perform the operant response. The observer horses watched either the demonstrator performing the bin-opening response (Group D+B); the demonstrator standing passively (Group D); or the operant bin in the absence of the demonstrator (Group B). Observers had access to and were free to interact with an identical bin during testing. Observers in Groups D+B and D were socially familiar with the demonstrator. Each test horse was tested once a day for 10 days. An ANOVA revealed no significant differences between treatment groups in the number of responses or the time taken to reach the learning criterion. However, there were highly significant differences between breed types, with non-warmbloods performing more bouts of opening the bin and feeding (p=0.02), feeding from the bin sooner (p=0.01) and reaching the criterion for learning sooner than warmbloods (p=0.05). There was also a significant negative linear relationship between horses' ages and time spent investigating the bin, with younger horses performing more investigative behaviour (y=-3.08x+106.86; p=0.02).
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 562
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Author Clarke, J.V.; Nicol, C.J.; Jones, R.; McGreevy, P.D.
Title Effects of observational learning on food selection in horses Type Journal Article
Year 1996 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 50 Issue 2 Pages 177-184
Keywords Horse; Observational learning; Food discrimination
Abstract Fourteen riding horses of mixed age and breed were randomly allocated to observer and control treatments. An additional horse was pre-trained as a demonstrator to walk the 13.8 m length of the test arena and select one of two food buckets using colour and pattern cues. Observer horses were exposed to correct performances of the task by the trained demonstrator, for 20 trials held over 2 days. Control horses were subjected to the same handling and placement procedures as the observer horses but without exposure to the behaviour of the demonstrator. The third day for all subjects was designated as a test day. Each subject was released individually in a predetermined place in the arena, and the latency to walk the length of the test arena to the food buckets, the latency to feed, the identity of the bucket approached and the identity of the bucket selected were recorded on ten consecutive trials. During tests both food buckets contained food to minimize the possibility of individual trial and error learning. On the first trial the mean latency to approach the goal area was 18 s for observer horses, compared with 119 s for control horses (t = 2.8, d.f. = 12, P < 0.01) and the mean latency to eat was 35 s for observer horses, compared with 181 s for control horses (t = 4.86, d.f. = 11, P < 0.001). However, observer horses were no more likely to choose the demonstrated bucket than control horses on the first trial. Twelve of the 14 horses decreased their latency to approach the goal area during the series of ten trials, but there were no significant changes in the buckets selected.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 563
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Author Weeks, J.W.; Crowell-Davis, S.L.; Heusner, G.
Title Preliminary study of the development of the Flehmen response in Equus caballus Type Journal Article
Year 2002 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 78 Issue 2-4 Pages 329-335
Keywords Horse behavior; Flehmen; Foal development
Abstract The flehmen response is commonly seen in most ungulates as well as in several other species (e.g. felids). The behavior is most often thought to be part of the sexual behavioral repertoire of males. One reigning hypothesis suggests that this behavior allows the male to determine the estrous state of a female through the chemosensory functions of the vomeronasal organ. However, females and young of both sexes also exhibit this behavior. Horse foals most frequently show the flehmen response during their first month of life with colts showing the behavior more often than fillies. This study tested the flehmen response on male and female foals throughout their pre-pubertal period. Foals were separately presented estrous and non-estrous urine weekly during the first month of life and then monthly until they were approximately 7 months of age. No significant differences were found between male and female foals for the following variables: latency to flehmen, duration of flehmen, frequency of flehmen and sniffs.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 615
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Author Murphy, J.; Arkins, S.
Title Equine learning behaviour Type Journal Article
Year 2007 Publication Behavioural Processes Abbreviated Journal Behav. Process.
Volume 76 Issue 1 Pages 1-13
Keywords Horse; Behaviour; Learning; Processes; Memory
Abstract Scientists and equestrians continually seek to achieve a clearer understanding of equine learning behaviour and its implications for training. Behavioural and learning processes in the horse are likely to influence not only equine athletic success but also the usefulness of the horse as a domesticated species. However given the status and commercial importance of the animal, equine learning behaviour has received only limited investigation. Indeed most experimental studies on equine cognitive function to date have addressed behaviour, learning and conceptualisation processes at a moderately basic cognitive level compared to studies in other species. It is however, likely that the horses with the greatest ability to learn and form/understand concepts are those, which are better equipped to succeed in terms of the human-horse relationship and the contemporary training environment. Within equitation generally, interpretation of the behavioural processes and training of the desired responses in the horse are normally attempted using negative reinforcement strategies. On the other hand, experimental designs to actually induce and/or measure equine learning rely almost exclusively on primary positive reinforcement regimes. Employing two such different approaches may complicate interpretation and lead to difficulties in identifying problematic or undesirable behaviours in the horse. The visual system provides the horse with direct access to immediate environmental stimuli that affect behaviour but vision in the horse is of yet not fully investigated or understood. Further investigations of the equine visual system will benefit our understanding of equine perception, cognitive function and the subsequent link with learning and training. More detailed comparative investigations of feral or free-ranging and domestic horses may provide useful evidence of attention, stress and motivational issues affecting behavioural and learning processes in the horse. The challenge for scientists is, as always, to design and commission experiments that will investigate and provide insight into these processes in a manner that withstands scientific scrutiny.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 629
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Author Rivera, E.; Benjamin, S.; Nielsen, B.; Shelle, J.; Zanella, A.J.
Title Behavioral and physiological responses of horses to initial training: the comparison between pastured versus stalled horses Type Journal Article
Year 2002 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 78 Issue 2-4 Pages 235-252
Keywords Horses; Housing; Training; Behavior; Stress; Cortisol; Welfare
Abstract Horses kept in stalls are deprived of opportunities for social interactions, and the performance of natural behaviors is limited. Inadequate environmental conditions may compromise behavioral development. Initial training is a complex process and it is likely that the responses of horses may be affected by housing conditions. Sixteen 2-year-old Arabian horses were kept on pasture (P) (n=8) or in individual stalls (S) (n=8). Twelve horses (six P and six S) were subjected to a standardized training procedure, carried out by two trainers in a round pen, and 4 horses (two P and two S) were introduced to the round pen but were not trained (C; control). On sample collection day 0, 7, 21 and 28, behavior observations were carried out, blood samples were drawn and heart rates were monitored. Total training time for the stalled horses was significantly higher than total time for the pastured horses (S: 26.4+/-1.5 min; P: 19.7+/-1.1; P=0.032). The stalled group required more time to habituate to the activities occurring from the start of training to mounting (S: 11.4+/-0.96; P: 7.3+/-0.75 min; P=0.007). Frequency of unwanted behavior was higher in the stalled horses (S: 8.0+/-2.0; P: 2.2+/-1.0; P=0.020). Pastured horses tended to have higher basal heart rates on day 0 (S: 74.7+/-4.8; P: 81.8+/-5.3 bpm; P=0.0771). While the physiological data failed to identify differences between housing groups, the behavioral data suggest that pasture-kept horses adapt more easily to training than stalled horses.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 717
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Author Sondergaard, E.; Ladewig, J.
Title Group housing exerts a positive effect on the behaviour of young horses during training Type Journal Article
Year 2004 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
Volume 87 Issue 1-2 Pages 105-118
Keywords Horses; Housing; Human-animal relationship; Social environment; Training; Learning
Abstract In an experiment on the effects of social environment and training on the human-animal relationship, 20 horses were handled according to a defined schedule. Eight horses were housed singly and 12 horses were housed in four groups of 3 horses. Horses were handled three times per week in 10 min sessions from an age of 6 months until 2 years of age during two winter periods. A total of 50 and 70 sessions were given in the first and second period, respectively. Five randomly allocated people performed the training. The training scheme involved leading, tying up, touching, lifting feet, etc. in 43 stages. The horse had to fulfil the performance criteria of each stage in order to get to the next stage. In the first winter period, horses were led to the stable when they had “passed” a stage or after 10 min of training. In the second winter period, horses would start off at stage 1 again, and when they “passed” a stage they went on to the next stage within the same training session. Because of the change in training procedure results were analysed separately for the two winter periods. There was a significant difference between trainers in the number of times they allowed a horse to “pass” a stage within each winter period (χ32, P<0.05; χ32, P<0.001 for the first and the second winter period, respectively). Group housed horses “passed” more stages than single housed horses (17 versus 14; 27 versus 18 in the first and second winter period, respectively; P<0.05 for the interaction). Singly housed horses bit the trainer more frequently than did group housed horses (P<0.01). The responses of group housed horses to training clearly demonstrate the benefits of raising young horses in groups.
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Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 724
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