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	Author	Zentall, T.R.
	Title	A cognitive behaviorist approach to the study of animal behavior			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	The Journal of general psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J Gen Psychol
	Volume	129	Issue	4	Pages	328-363
	Keywords	Animals; Attention; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Learning; Memory; Social Behavior
	Abstract	Traditional psychological approaches to animal learning and behavior have involved either the atheoretical behaviorist approach proposed by B. F. Skinner (1938), in which input-output relations are described in response to environmental manipulations, or the theoretical behaviorist approach offered by C. L Hull (1943), in which associations mediated by several hypothetical constructs and intervening variables are formed between stimuli and responses. Recently, the application of a cognitive behaviorist approach to animal learning and behavior has been found to have considerable value as a research tool. This perspective has grown out of E. C. Tolman's cognitive approach to learning in which behavior is mediated by mechanisms that are not directly observable but can be inferred from the results of critical experiments. In the present article, the author presents several examples of the successful application of the cognitive behaviorist approach. In each case, the experiments have been designed to distinguish between more traditional mechanisms and those mediated by hypothesized internal representations. These examples were selected because the evidence suggests that some form of active cognitive organization is needed to account for the behavioral results.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506, USA. Zentall@uky.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0022-1309	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12494989			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	214
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	Author	Heyes, C.M.; Dawson, G.R.
	Title	A demonstration of observational learning in rats using a bidirectional control			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1990	Publication	Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	Q J Exp Psychol B
	Volume	42	Issue	1	Pages	59-71
	Keywords	appetite; attention; imitation; problem solving; psychomotor performance; Appetitive Behavior; Attention; Imitative Behavior; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance
	Abstract	Hungry rats observed a conspecific demonstrator pushing a single manipulandum, a joystick, to the right or to the left for food reward and were then allowed access to the joystick from a different orientation. The effects of right-pushing vs left-pushing observation experience on (1) response acquisition, (2) reversal of a left-right discrimination, and (3) responding in extinction, were examined. Rats that had observed left-pushing made more left responses during acquisition than rats that had observed right-pushing, and rats that had observed demonstrators pushing in the direction that had previously been reinforced took longer to reach criterion reversal and made more responses in extinction than rats that had observed demonstrators pushing in the opposite direction to that previously reinforced. These results provide evidence that rats are capable of learning a response, or a response-reinforcer contingency, through conspecific observation.
	Address	University of Cambridge, U.K.
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	02724995 (Issn)	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	Cited By (since 1996): 49; Export Date: 17 May 2007; Source: Scopus; Language of Original Document: English; Correspondence Address: Heyes, C.M.			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1766
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	Author	Ikeda, M.; Patterson, K.; Graham, K.S.; Ralph, M.A.L.; Hodges, J.R.
	Title	A horse of a different colour: do patients with semantic dementia recognise different versions of the same object as the same?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Neuropsychologia	Abbreviated Journal	Neuropsychologia
	Volume	44	Issue	4	Pages	566-575
	Keywords	Adult; Aged; Anomia/diagnosis/psychology; Atrophy; Attention; Color Perception; Dementia/diagnosis/psychology; Discrimination Learning; Dominance, Cerebral; Female; Humans; Male; Memory, Short-Term; Middle Aged; Neuropsychological Tests; Orientation; *Pattern Recognition, Visual; Reference Values; Retention (Psychology); Semantics; Size Perception; Temporal Lobe/pathology
	Abstract	Ten patients with semantic dementia resulting from bilateral anterior temporal lobe atrophy, and 10 matched controls, were tested on an object recognition task in which they were invited to choose (from a four-item array) the picture representing “the same thing” as an object picture that they had just inspected and attempted to name. The target in the response array was never physically identical to the studied picture but differed from it – in the various conditions – in size, angle of view, colour or exemplar (e.g. a different breed of dog). In one test block for each patient, the response array was presented immediately after the studied picture was removed; in another block, a 2 min filled delay was inserted between study and test. The patients performed relatively well when the studied object and target response differed only in the size of the picture on the page, but were significantly impaired as a group in the other three type-of-change conditions, even with no delay between study and test. The five patients whose structural brain imaging revealed major right-temporal atrophy were more impaired overall, and also more affected by the 2 min delay, than the five patients with an asymmetric pattern characterised by predominant left-sided atrophy. These results are interpreted in terms of a hypothesis that successful classification of an object token as an object type is not a pre-semantic ability but rather results from interaction of perceptual and conceptual processing.
	Address	Department of Neuropsychiatry, Ehime University School of Medicine, Shitsukawa, Toon City, Ehime 791-0295, Japan. mikeda@m.ehime-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-3932	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16115656			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4059
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	Author	Dunbar, K.; MacLeod, C.M.
	Title	A horse race of a different color: Stroop interference patterns with transformed words			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1984	Publication	Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform
	Volume	10	Issue	5	Pages	622-639
	Keywords	Attention; Color Perception; Discrimination Learning; Humans; Orientation; Reaction Time; Reading; *Semantics
	Abstract	Four experiments investigated Stroop interference using geometrically transformed words. Over experiments, reading was made increasingly difficult by manipulating orientation uncertainty and the number of noncolor words. As a consequence, time to read color words aloud increased dramatically. Yet, even when reading a color word was considerably slower than naming the color of ink in which the word was printed, Stroop interference persisted virtually unaltered. This result is incompatible with the simple horse race model widely used to explain color-word interference. When reading became extremely slow, a reversed Stroop effect--interference in reading the word due to an incongruent ink color--appeared for one transformation together with the standard Stroop interference. Whether or not the concept of automaticity is invoked, relative speed of processing the word versus the color does not provide an adequate overall explanation of the Stroop phenomenon.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0096-1523	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:6238123			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4065
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	Author	Okamoto, S.; Tomonaga, M.; Ishii, K.; Kawai, N.; Tanaka, M.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	An infant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) follows human gaze			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	2	Pages	107-114
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Newborn/psychology; Attention; Cognition; Conditioning, Operant; Male; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Social Behavior; *Visual Perception
	Abstract	The ability of non-human primates to follow the gaze of other individuals has recently received much attention in comparative cognition. The aim of the present study was to investigate the emergence of this ability in a chimpanzee infant. The infant was trained to look at one of two objects, which an experimenter indicated by one of four different cue conditions: (1) tapping on the target object with a finger; (2) pointing to the target object with a finger; (3) gazing at the target object with head orientation; or (4) glancing at the target object without head orientation. The subject was given food rewards independently of its responses under the first three conditions, so that its responses to the objects were not influenced by the rewards. The glancing condition was tested occasionally, without any reinforcement. By the age of 13 months, the subject showed reliable following responses to the object that was indicated by the various cues, including glancing alone. Furthermore, additional tests clearly showed that the subject's performance was controlled by the “social” properties of the experimenter-given cues but not by the non-social, local-enhancing peripheral properties.
	Address	Department of Psychology, School of Letters, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan. sokamot@yahoo.co.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12150035			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2609
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	Author	Griffin, D.R.
	Title	Animals know more than we used to think			Type
	Year	2001	Publication	Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America	Abbreviated Journal	Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
	Volume	98	Issue	9	Pages	4833-4834
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Attention/physiology; Brain/physiology; Choice Behavior/physiology; Cognition/physiology; Humans; Macaca mulatta/physiology/psychology; Memory/*physiology; Optic Disk/physiology; Psychological Tests
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0027-8424	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11320232			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2823
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	Author	Takimoto, A.; Fujita, K.
	Title	*Are horses (Equus caballus) sensitive to human attentional states?*			Type	Conference Article
	Year	2008	Publication	IESM 2008	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume		Issue		Pages
	Keywords	Horses; Attentional state; Begging behavior
	Abstract	The ability to reliably detect what others are attending to seems important for social species to interact with their partners. Domestic horses (Equus caballus) have lived with humans for over five thousand years, hence they might have developed sensitivity to human attention. In the present study, we investigated whether horses would discriminate the situation in which a human experimenter could see them from the situation in which she could not. Specifically, we tested whether horses understand the role of eyes in human attentional states, produce more visual gestures when the experimenter can see their begging behaviors and produce more auditory or tactile gestures when she can not. We used with a slight modification the paradigm that previously yielded support for chimpanzee understanding of human attention (Hostetter et al. 2007). Twelve horses were offered food by the experimenter who showed various attentional states in front of them. We scored frequency of begging behaviors by the horses. In experiment 1, we set three kinds of condition: hand over the eyes, hand over the mouth and away. In the last condition there was only a food in front of horses, which was a control condition. The results showed that horses produced more auditory or tactile begging behaviors when the experimenter“s eyes were not visible than when her eyes were visible, but there was no difference in visual begging behaviors. In experiment 2, we set two kinds of condition: eyes closed and eyes open. The horses also produced more auditory or tactile begging behaviors when the experimenter”s eyes were closed than when they were open. However, there was no difference in visual begging behaviors. These results show that horses discriminate the situation in which humans can see from that in which humans can not. Of special interest, horses increased only auditory or tactile behaviors, not all types of communicative behaviors, when the experimenter could not see their begging behaviors. This result suggests that horses are sensitive to human attentional states. Moreover, horses may do recognize the eyes as an important indicator of whether or not humans will respond to their behavior and they may be able to behave flexibly depending upon human attentional states
	Address	Kyoto University
	Corporate Author	Takimoto, A.			Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference	IESM 2008
	Notes	Poster IESM 2008			Approved	yes
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4481
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	Author	Gácsi, M.; Miklósi, Á.; Varga, O.; Topál, J.; Csányi, V.
	Title	Are readers of our face readers of our minds? Dogs (Canis familiaris) show situation-dependent recognition of human's attention			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	7	Issue	3	Pages	144-153
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Attention; Bonding, Human-Pet; Cognition; Concept Formation; Cues; Dogs/psychology; Facial Expression; Female; Humans; Male; Nonverbal Communication; Recognition (Psychology); Social Behavior
	Abstract	The ability of animals to use behavioral/facial cues in detection of human attention has been widely investigated. In this test series we studied the ability of dogs to recognize human attention in different experimental situations (ball-fetching game, fetching objects on command, begging from humans). The attentional state of the humans was varied along two variables: (1) facing versus not facing the dog; (2) visible versus non-visible eyes. In the first set of experiments (fetching) the owners were told to take up different body positions (facing or not facing the dog) and to either cover or not cover their eyes with a blindfold. In the second set of experiments (begging) dogs had to choose between two eating humans based on either the visibility of the eyes or direction of the face. Our results show that the efficiency of dogs to discriminate between “attentive” and “inattentive” humans depended on the context of the test, but they could rely on the orientation of the body, the orientation of the head and the visibility of the eyes. With the exception of the fetching-game situation, they brought the object to the front of the human (even if he/she turned his/her back towards the dog), and preferentially begged from the facing (or seeing) human. There were also indications that dogs were sensitive to the visibility of the eyes because they showed increased hesitative behavior when approaching a blindfolded owner, and they also preferred to beg from the person with visible eyes. We conclude that dogs are able to rely on the same set of human facial cues for detection of attention, which form the behavioral basis of understanding attention in humans. Showing the ability of recognizing human attention across different situations dogs proved to be more flexible than chimpanzees investigated in similar circumstances.
	Address	Comparative Ethology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pazmany P. 1/c., 1117, Budapest, Hungary. gm.art@axelero.hu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14669075			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2547
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	Author	Lejeune, H.; Macar, F.; Zakay, D.
	Title	Attention and timing: dual-task performance in pigeons			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Behavioural Processes	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Process.
	Volume	45	Issue	1-3	Pages	141-157
	Keywords	Timing; Dual task; Attention; Pigeons
	Abstract	Pigeons were exposed to an analog of a `dual-task' procedure used to test attentional models of timing in humans. After separate training on an auditory duration discrimination and on a variable ratio (VR) schedule, VR episodes lasting for 5 s were superimposed on the stimuli to be timed, either early (E) or late (L) during the trial. Trials with VR yielded underestimation of the target durations (increased % of `short' choices), relative to trials without VR, and this effect was stronger under the L than under the E condition. Data were similar to those collected with humans and support attentional models of timing according to which the simultaneous non-timing task uses processing resources which are diverted from the timing mechanisms.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3582
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	Author	Range, F.; Huber, L.
	Title	Attention in common marmosets: implications for social-learning experiments			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	6	Pages	1033-1041
	Keywords	attention; Callithrix jacchus; common marmoset; imitation; social learning
	Abstract	The question whether a certain species is or is not able to imitate has received much recent attention. However, the ability to copy a demonstrated action might depend not only on the imitative ability of the observer but also on its attention, a factor widely neglected in discussions and experiments. Since attention differs between species as well as between individuals, it is likely to influence the amount and type of information different species and/or observers may extract from a given demonstration. We studied attention in common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus. In a series of experimental sessions, individual marmosets watched different conspecific models that were searching, manipulating an object and feeding. The observers could see the demonstration through two observation holes, which allowed us to measure exactly how often and for how long they watched the model. Marmosets were more attentive towards conspecifics engaged in a problem-solving task than an exploring model. Individual variation in attention was large, ranging from less than 10% to over 49%. Attention also depended on the identity of the model with an increase in attention if it was of the opposite sex. Overall, attention of marmosets was short with a median duration of 6 s while the model manipulated an object. This study measured the real interest of the observer towards a model, which could be an important variable in social-learning experiments.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4208
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