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	Author	Cleveland, A.; Rocca, A.M.; Wendt, E.L.; Westergaard, G.C.
	Title	Transport of tools to food sites in tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	7	Issue	3	Pages	193-198
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Cebus/psychology; Concept Formation; Feeding Behavior; Female; Male; *Problem Solving
	Abstract	Tool use and transport represent cognitively important aspects of early hominid evolution, and nonhuman primates are often used as models to examine the cognitive, ecological, morphological and social correlates of these behaviors in order to gain insights into the behavior of our early human ancestors. In 2001, Jalles-Filho et al. found that free-ranging capuchin monkeys failed to transport tools (stones) to food sites (nuts), but transported the foods to the tool sites. This result cast doubt on the usefulness of Cebus to model early human tool-using behavior. In this study, we examined the performance of six captive tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) in a tool transport task. Subjects were provided with the opportunity to transport two different tools to fixed food reward sites when the food reward was visible from the tool site and when the food reward was not visible from the tool site. We found that the subjects quickly and readily transported probing tools to an apparatus baited with syrup, but rarely transported stones to a nut-cracking apparatus. We suggest that the performance of the capuchins here reflects an efficient foraging strategy, in terms of energy return, among wild Cebus monkeys.
	Address	Alpha Genesis, 95 Castle Hall Road, P.O. Box 557, Yemassee, SC 29945, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15022055			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2539
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	Author	Uller, C.
	Title	Disposition to recognize goals in infant chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	7	Issue	3	Pages	154-161
	Keywords	Analysis of Variance; Animals; Female; Fixation, Ocular; Goals; Intention; Male; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Pattern Recognition, Visual; Problem Solving; *Recognition (Psychology)
	Abstract	Do nonhuman primates attribute goals to others? Traditional studies with chimpanzees provide equivocal evidence for “mind reading” in nonhuman primates. Here we adopt looking time, a methodology commonly used with human infants to test infant chimpanzees. In this experiment, four infant chimpanzees saw computer-generated stimuli that mimicked a goal-directed behavior. The baby chimps performed as well as human infants, namely, they were sensitive to the trajectories of the objects, thus suggesting that chimpanzees may be endowed with a disposition to understand goal-directed behaviors. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, C04 3SQ, Colchester, UK. uller40@yahoo.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14685823			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2546
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	Author	Ottoni, E.B.; de Resende, B.D.; Izar, P.
	Title	Watching the best nutcrackers: what capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) know about others' tool-using skills			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	4	Pages	215-219
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Cebus/psychology; Feeding Behavior; Female; Male; Nuts; Problem Solving
	Abstract	The present work is part of a decade-long study on the spontaneous use of stones for cracking hard-shelled nuts by a semi-free-ranging group of brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Nutcracking events are frequently watched by other individuals--usually younger, less proficient, and that are well tolerated to the point of some scrounging being allowed by the nutcracker. Here we report findings showing that the choice of observational targets is an active, non-random process, and that observers seem to have some understanding of the relative proficiency of their group mates, preferentially watching the more skilled nutcrackers, which enhances not only scrounging payoffs, but also social learning opportunities.
	Address	Laboratory of Cognitive Ethology, Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. ebottoni@usp.br
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15719240			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	355
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	Author	Horner, V.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	3	Pages	164-181
	Keywords	Animals; Child Behavior; Child, Preschool; Concept Formation; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; Pan troglodytes; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance; *Social Environment; Species Specificity
	Abstract	This study explored whether the tendency of chimpanzees and children to use emulation or imitation to solve a tool-using task was a response to the availability of causal information. Young wild-born chimpanzees from an African sanctuary and 3- to 4-year-old children observed a human demonstrator use a tool to retrieve a reward from a puzzle-box. The demonstration involved both causally relevant and irrelevant actions, and the box was presented in each of two conditions: opaque and clear. In the opaque condition, causal information about the effect of the tool inside the box was not available, and hence it was impossible to differentiate between the relevant and irrelevant parts of the demonstration. However, in the clear condition causal information was available, and subjects could potentially determine which actions were necessary. When chimpanzees were presented with the opaque box, they reproduced both the relevant and irrelevant actions, thus imitating the overall structure of the task. When the box was presented in the clear condition they instead ignored the irrelevant actions in favour of a more efficient, emulative technique. These results suggest that emulation is the favoured strategy of chimpanzees when sufficient causal information is available. However, if such information is not available, chimpanzees are prone to employ a more comprehensive copy of an observed action. In contrast to the chimpanzees, children employed imitation to solve the task in both conditions, at the expense of efficiency. We suggest that the difference in performance of chimpanzees and children may be due to a greater susceptibility of children to cultural conventions, perhaps combined with a differential focus on the results, actions and goals of the demonstrator.
	Address	Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9JU, UK. vkh1@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15549502			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	732
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	Author	Suda, C.; Call, J.
	Title	Piagetian conservation of discrete quantities in bonobos (Pan paniscus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	4	Pages	220-235
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Female; Hominidae/psychology; Male; Pan paniscus; Pan troglodytes; Pongo pygmaeus; *Problem Solving
	Abstract	This study investigated whether physical discreteness helps apes to understand the concept of Piagetian conservation (i.e. the invariance of quantities). Subjects were four bonobos, three chimpanzees, and five orangutans. Apes were tested on their ability to conserve discrete/continuous quantities in an over-conservation procedure in which two unequal quantities of edible rewards underwent various transformations in front of subjects. Subjects were examined to determine whether they could track the larger quantity of reward after the transformation. Comparison between the two types of conservation revealed that tests with bonobos supported the discreteness hypothesis. Bonobos, but neither chimpanzees nor orangutans, performed significantly better with discrete quantities than with continuous ones. The results suggest that at least bonobos could benefit from the discreteness of stimuli in their acquisition of conservation skills.
	Address	Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. suda@eva.mpg.de
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15692813			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2494
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	Author	Santos, L.R.; Rosati, A.; Sproul, C.; Spaulding, B.; Hauser, M.D.
	Title	Means-means-end tool choice in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus): finding the limits on primates' knowledge of tools			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	4	Pages	236-246
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Choice Behavior; Female; Male; Problem Solving; Saguinus/psychology
	Abstract	Most studies of animal tool use require subjects to use one object to gain access to a food reward. In many real world situations, however, animals perform more than one action in sequence to achieve their goals. Of theoretical interest is whether animals have the cognitive capacity to recognize the relationship between consecutive action sequences in which there may be one overall goal and several subgoals. Here we ask if cotton-top tamarins, a species that in captivity uses tools to solve means-end problems, can go one step further and use a sequence of tools (means) to obtain food (end). We first trained subjects to use a pulling tool to obtain a food reward. After this initial training, subjects were presented with problems in which one tool had to be used in combination with a second in order to obtain food. Subjects showed great difficulty when two tools were required to obtain the food reward. Although subjects attended to the connection between the tool and food reward, they ignored the physical connection between the two tools. After training on a two-tool problem, we presented subjects with a series of transfer tests to explore if they would generalize to new types of connections between the tools. Subjects readily transferred to new connections. Our results therefore provide the first evidence to date that tamarins can learn to solve problems involving two tools, but that they do so only with sufficient training.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA. laurie.santos@yale.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15668762			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2495
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	Author	Call, J.; Carpenter, M.; Tomasello, M.
	Title	Copying results and copying actions in the process of social learning: chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	3	Pages	151-163
	Keywords	Animals; Child Behavior; Child, Preschool; Concept Formation; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; Pan troglodytes; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance; Random Allocation; *Social Environment; Species Specificity
	Abstract	There is currently much debate about the nature of social learning in chimpanzees. The main question is whether they can copy others' actions, as opposed to reproducing the environmental effects of these actions using their own preexisting behavioral strategies. In the current study, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens) were shown different demonstrations of how to open a tube-in both cases by a conspecific. In different experimental conditions, demonstrations consisted of (1) action only (the actions necessary to open the tube without actually opening it); (2) end state only (the open tube, without showing any actions); (3) both of these components (in a full demonstration); or (4) neither of these components (in a baseline condition). In the first three conditions subjects saw one of two different ways that the tube could open (break in middle; caps off ends). Subjects' behavior in each condition was assessed for how often they opened the tube, how often they opened it in the same location as the demonstrator, and how often they copied the demonstrator's actions or style of opening the tube. Whereas chimpanzees reproduced mainly the environmental results of the demonstrations (emulation), human children often reproduced the demonstrator's actions (imitation). Because the procedure used was similar in many ways to the procedure that Meltzoff (Dev Psych 31:1, 1995) used to study the understanding of others' unfulfilled intentions, the implications of these findings with regard to chimpanzees' understanding of others' intentions are also discussed.
	Address	Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany. call@eva.mpg.de
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15490290			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2504
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	Author	Osthaus, B.; Lea, S.E.G.; Slater, A.M.
	Title	Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) fail to show understanding of means-end connections in a string-pulling task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	1	Pages	37-47
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Cognition; Dogs/psychology; Problem Solving
	Abstract	Domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) were tested in four experiments for their understanding of means-end connections. In each of the experiments, the dogs attempted to retrieve a food treat that could be seen behind a barrier and which was connected, via string, to a within-reach wooden block. In the experiments, either one or two strings were present, but the treat was attached only to one string. Successful retrieval of the treat required the animals to pull the appropriate string (either by pawing or by grasping the wooden block in their jaws) until the treat emerged from under the barrier. The results showed that the dogs were successful if the treat was in a perpendicular line to the barrier, i.e. straight ahead, but not when the string was at an angle: in the latter condition, the typical response was a proximity error in that the dogs pawed or mouthed at a location closest in line to the treat. When two strings that crossed were present, the dogs tended to pull on the wrong string. The combined results from the experiments show that, although dogs can learn to pull on a string to obtain food, they do not spontaneously understand means-end connections involving strings.
	Address	School of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK. b.osthaus@exeter.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15338446			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2513
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	Author	Bovet, D.; Vauclair, J.; Blaye, A.
	Title	Categorization and abstraction abilities in 3-year-old children: a comparison with monkey data			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	1	Pages	53-59
	Keywords	Animals; Child Development; Child, Preschool; Classification; Concept Formation; Discrimination Learning; Female; Form Perception; Humans; Male; Papio; Pattern Recognition, Visual; *Problem Solving; Species Specificity
	Abstract	Three-year-old children were tested on three categorization tasks of increasing levels of abstraction (used with adult baboons in an earlier study): the first was a conceptual categorization task (food vs toys), the second a perceptual matching task (same vs different objects), and the third a relational matching task in which the children had to sort pairs according to whether or not the two items belonged to the same or different categories. The children were tested using two different procedures, the first a replication of the procedure used with the baboons (pulling one rope for a category or a relationship between two objects, and another rope for the other category or relationship), the second a task based upon children's prior experiences with sorting objects (putting in the same box objects belonging to the same category or a pair of objects exemplifying the same relation). The children were able to solve the first task (conceptual categorization) when tested with the sorting into boxes procedure, and the second task (perceptual matching) when tested with both procedures. The children were able to master the third task (relational matching) only when the rules were clearly explained to them, but not when they could only watch sorting examples. In fact, the relational matching task without explanation requires analogy abilities that do not seem to be fully developed at 3 years of age. The discrepancies in performances between children tested with the two procedures, with the task explained or not, and the discrepancies observed between children and baboons are discussed in relation to differences between species and/or problem-solving strategies.
	Address	Center for Research in Psychology of Cognition, Language and Emotion, Universite de Provence, Aix-en-Provence, France. dbovet@u-paris10.fr
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15300466			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2516
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	Author	Paukner, A.; Anderson, J.R.; Fujita, K.
	Title	Redundant food searches by capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella): a failure of metacognition?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	2	Pages	110-117
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Cebus; Concept Formation; Female; Male; Pattern Recognition, Visual; Problem Solving; Visual Perception
	Abstract	This study investigated capuchin monkeys' understanding of their own visual search behavior as a means to gather information. Five monkeys were presented with three tubes that could be visually searched to determine the location of a bait. The bait's visibility was experimentally manipulated, and the monkeys' spontaneous visual searches before tube selection were analyzed. In Experiment 1, three monkeys selected the baited tube significantly above chance; however, the monkeys also searched transparent tubes. In Experiment 2, a bent tube in which food was never visible was introduced. When the bent tube was baited, the monkeys failed to deduce the bait location and responded randomly. They also continued to look into the bent tube despite not gaining any pertinent information from it. The capuchin monkeys' behavior contrasts with the efficient employment of visual search behavior reported in humans, apes and macaques. This difference is consistent with species-related variations in metacognitive abilities, although other explanations are also possible.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK. ap14@stir.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16184375			Approved	no
	Call Number	Admin @ knut @			Serial	15
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