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Murphy, M.A.; Waits, L.P.; Kendall, K.C.; Wasser, S.K.; Higbee, J.A.; Bogden, R. |
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Title |
An evaluation of long-term preservation methods for brown bear (Ursus arctos) faecal DNA samples |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
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Conservation Genetics |
Abbreviated Journal |
Conservat. Genet. |
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3 |
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4 |
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435-440 |
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Relatively few large-scale faecal DNA studieshave been initiated due to difficulties inamplifying low quality and quantity DNAtemplate. To improve brown bear faecal DNA PCRamplification success rates and to determinepost collection sample longevity, fivepreservation methods were evaluated: 90%ethanol, DETs buffer, silica-dried, oven-driedstored at room temperature, and oven-driedstored at -20 °C. Preservationeffectiveness was evaluated for 50 faecalsamples by PCR amplification of a mitochondrialDNA (mtDNA) locus (~146 bp) and a nuclear DNA(nDNA) locus (~200 bp) at time points of oneweek, one month, three months and six months. Preservation method and storage timesignificantly impacted mtDNA and nDNAamplification success rates. For mtDNA, allpreservation methods had >= 75% success atone week, but storage time had a significantimpact on the effectiveness of the silicapreservation method. Ethanol preserved sampleshad the highest success rates for both mtDNA(86.5%) and nDNA (84%). Nuclear DNAamplification success rates ranged from 26-88%, and storage time had a significant impacton all methods but ethanol. Preservationmethod and storage time should be importantconsiderations for researchers planningprojects utilizing faecal DNA. We recommendpreservation of faecal samples in 90% ethanolwhen feasible, although when collecting inremote field conditions or for both DNA andhormone assays a dry collection method may beadvantageous. |
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1572-9737 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ Murphy2002 |
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6574 |
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Rørvang, M.V.; Christensen, J.W.; Ladewig, J.; McLean, A. |
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Title |
Social Learning in Horses--Fact or Fiction? |
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2018 |
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Frontiers in Veterinary Science |
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Front. Vet. Sci. |
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5 |
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212 |
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Prima facie, the acquisition of novel behaviors in animals through observation of conspecifics seems straightforward. There are, however, various mechanisms through which the behavior of animals can be altered from observing others. These mechanisms range from simple hard-wired contagious processes to genuine learning by observation, which differ fundamentally in cognitive complexity. They range from social facilitation and local enhancement to true social learning. The different learning mechanisms are the subject of this review, largely because research on learning by observation can be confounded by difficulties in interpretation owing to the looming possibility of associative learning infecting experimental results. While it is often assumed that horses are capable of acquiring new behavior through intra-species observation, research on social learning in horses includes a variety of studies some of which may overestimate the possession of higher mental abilities. Assuming such abilities in their absence can have welfare implications, e.g. isolating stereotypical horses on the assumption that these behaviors can be learned though observation by neighboring horses. This review summarizes the definitions and criteria for the various types of social transmission and social learning and reviews the current documentation for each type in horses with the aim of clarifying whether horses possess the ability to learn through true social learning. As social ungulates, horses evolved in open landscapes, exposed to predators and grazing most of the day. Being in close proximity to conspecifics may theoretically offer an opportunity to learn socially, however anti-predator vigilance and locating forage may not require the neural complexity of social learning. Given the significant energetic expense of brain tissue, it is likely that social facilitation and local enhancement may have been sufficient in the adaptation of equids to their niche. As a consequence, social learning abilities may be maladaptive in horses. Collectively, the review proposes a novel differentiation between social transmission (social facilitation, local and stimulus enhancement) and social learning (goal emulation, imitation). Horses are undoubtedly sensitive to intra-species transfer of information but this transfer does not appear to satisfy the criteria for social learning, and thus there is no solid evidence for true social learning in horses. |
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2297-1769 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6558 |
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Janczarek, I.; Stachurska, A.; Kedzierski, W.; Wisniewska, A.; Ryzak, M.; Koziol, A. |
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The intensity of physiological and behavioral responses of horses to predator vocalizations |
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2020 |
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BMC Veterinary Research |
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16 |
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1 |
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431 |
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Predatory attacks on horses can become a problem in some parts of the world, particularly when considering the recovering gray wolf populations. The issue studied was whether horses transformed by humans and placed in stable-pasture environments had retained their natural abilities to respond to predation risk. The objective of the study was to determine the changes in cardiac activity, cortisol concentrations, and behavior of horses in response to the vocalizations of two predators: the gray wolf (Canis lupus), which the horses of the breed studied had coevolved with but not been exposed to recently, and Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), from which the horses had been mostly isolated. In addition, we hypothesized that a higher proportion of Thoroughbred (TB) horse ancestry in the pedigree would result in higher emotional excitability in response to predator vocalizations. Nineteen horses were divided into groups of 75%, 50% and 25% TB ancestry. The auditory test conducted in a paddock comprised a 10-min prestimulus period, a 5-min stimulus period when one of the predators was heard, and a 10-min poststimulus period without any experimental stimuli. |
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1746-6148 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ Janczarek2020 |
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6624 |
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Niederhöfer, S. |
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Title |
Stressbelastung bei Pferden in Abhängigkeit des Haltungssystems |
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2009 |
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Pferdegerechte Haltungssysteme spielen bei der heutigen Nutzung des Freizeit- oder Sportpartners Pferd eine wichtige Rolle, da naturnahe Haltungsbedingungen nur in seltenen Fällen zu realisieren sind. Sämtliche Aufstallungsformen müssen als Kompromiss angesehen werden und bieten somit Vor- und Nachteile. Die vorliegende Untersuchung verfolgte den Zweck, die Stressbelastung von Pferden in verschiedenen Haltungssystemen zu erfassen und vergleichend zu beurteilen. Während der von Mai 2006 bis Juli 2007 durchgeführten Versuche wurden 24 zwei- bis dreijährige Hannoveranerstuten für jeweils 4 Wochen in insgesamt 6 verschiedenen Haltungsformen aufgestallt. Die Haltungsvarianten beinhalteten die Einzelbox (Variante 1), die Einzelbox mit einem frei zugänglichem Paddock (Variante 2), die gemeinsame Haltung von zwei Pferden in zwei Boxen und einem angeschlossenen frei zugänglichem Auslauf (Variante 3) und die Gruppenhaltung von 6 Pferden in einer Mehrraumauslaufhaltung (Variante 4 – 6). Die Haltungsvariante 4 differierte von den Varianten 5 und 6 durch seinen ungegliederten Liegebereich. In den Variante 5 und 6 wurde der Liegebereich der Gruppenhaltung durch eine über die halbe Breite reichende Trennwand in zwei Bereiche unterteilt. Die Trennwand befand sich in Haltungsvariante 5 im rechten Winkel an die Außenwand grenzend, während sie in Variante 6 an der der Stallgasse zugewandten Seite des Liegebereichs aufgestellt wurde. Um eine Vergleichbarkeit mit einem Reitpferd zu schaffen, wurden alle Pferde in allen Haltungssystemen täglich für circa eine Stunde in einer Freilaufanlage bewegt. Die Stressbelastung wurde mittels der Messung der Herzfrequenzvariabilität (Parameter pNN50 und SD1) und der Bestimmung fäkaler Cortisolmetaboliten erfasst. Zusätzlich wurden Videoauswertungen hinsichtlich der Beobachtung von Verhaltensauffälligkeiten in den Haltungsvarianten 1 und 2 durchgeführt. Die durchschnittlich niedrigste Stressbelastung erfuhren die Pferde durch die Haltungsvarianten 4 (pNN50: 46,32 %, SD1:158,58 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 21,01nmol/kg Kot) und 6 (pNN50: 47,1 %, SD1: 144,62 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 21,01 nmol/kg Kot). Die
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Auswertung der pNN50- und Cortisolmetabolitenwerte ergab die größte Stressbelastung der Pferde in den Varianten 1 (pNN50: 42,81 %, SD1: 134,52 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 28,56 nmol/kg Kot) und 3 (pNN50: 42,41 %, SD1: 135,36, Cortisolmetaboliten: 28,60 nmol/kg Kot). Die Auswertung der SD1-Werte zeigte zusätzlich noch eine hohe Stressbelastung der Pferde in der Variante 5 (pNN50: 44,83 %, SD1: 119,24 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 27,18 nmol/kg Kot). Die Haltungsvariante 2 (pNN50: 45,77 %, SD1: 144,25 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 27,59 nmol/kg Kot) beziehungsweise die Varianten 2 und 5 (bei der Betrachtung der pNN50- und der Cortisolmetabolitenwerte) verursachten im Durchschnitt eine mittlere Stressbelastung. Teilweise waren die Unterschiede jedoch zu gering um die Signifikanzgrenze zu überschreiten. Die Betrachtung der einzelnen Pferde und der Pferdegruppen ergab große interindividuelle Unterschiede und deutliche gruppenspezifische Gemeinsamkeiten. Die Position eines Tieres in der Rangordnung hatte in diesen Untersuchungen bei der Betrachtung der Mittelwerte keinen Einfluss auf die Stressbelastung in Abhängigkeit der Haltungsvariante. Vielmehr zeigten sich auch hier deutliche individuelle Unterschiede in der Stressanfälligkeit und den Vorlieben der einzelnen Pferde bezüglich der verschiedenen Haltungssysteme. Die Analyse der Videoaufzeichnungen ergab, dass mehrere Pferde Kreisbewegungen in der Einzelbox ohne Auslauf (Variante 1) zeigten, während in der Variante 2 (Paddockbox) kein Pferd durch Kreisbewegungen auffiel. Andere Verhaltensauffälligkeiten oder gar Verhaltensstörungen wurden nicht beobachtet. Bei der Auswertung der Aufenthaltshäufigkeit und der Aufenthaltesdauer in den 4 Boxenquadranten zeigten sich einige Pferde sehr aktiv, was ein Hinweis auf eventuelle Unruhe oder Nervosität sein kann, während andere Pferde im Vergleich zum Gruppendurchschnitt sehr ruhig wirkten, da sie sich in der Box kaum bewegten und über lange Zeitabschnitte in einem Quadranten standen. Obwohl die Gruppenhaltung für die Mehrzahl der Pferde eine geringere Stressbelastung bedeutete und auch hinsichtlich des Bewegungs- und Sozialverhaltens am artgerechtesten einzustufen ist, sollte für jedes Pferd individuell unter Berücksichtigung seines Alters, seiner Rasse, seines Nutzungsgrades, aber vor allem seines Charakters und seiner Erfahrungen im Sozialverhalten ein passendes großzügig bemessenes Haltungssystem ermittelt werden, um
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die durch das Haltungssystem ausgeübte Stressbelastung zu minimieren und das Wohlbefinden der Pferde zu steigern. |
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Ph.D. thesis |
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Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover |
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Hannover |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6607 |
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Author |
Boissy, A. |
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Title |
Fear and Fearfulness in Animals |
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Journal Article |
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1995 |
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The Quarterly Review of Biology |
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The Quarterly Review of Biology |
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70 |
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2 |
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165-191 |
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Persistence of individual differences in animal behavior in reactions to various environmental challenges could reflect basic divergences in temperament, which might be used to predict details of adaptive response. Although studies have been carried out on fear and anxiety in various species, including laboratory, domestic and wild animals, no consistent definition of fearfulness as a basic trait of temperament has emerged. After a classification of the events that may produce a state of fear, this article describes the great variability in behavior and in physiological patterns generally associated with emotional reactivity. The difficulties of proposing fearfulness-the general capacity to react to a variety of potentially threatening situations-as a valid basic internal variable are then discussed. Although there are many studies showing covariation among the psychobiological responses to different environmental challenges, other studies find no such correlations and raise doubts about the interpretation of fearfulness as a basic personality trait. After a critical assessment of methodologies used in fear and anxiety studies, it is suggested that discrepancies among results are mainly due to the modulation of emotional responses in animals, which depend on numerous genetic and epigenetic factors. It is difficult to compare results obtained by different methods from animals reared under various conditions and with different genetic origins. The concept of fearfulness as an inner trait is best supported by two kinds of investigations. First, an experimental approach combining ethology and experimental psychology produces undeniable indicators of emotional reactivity. Second, genetic lines selected for psychobiological traits prove useful in establishing between behavioral and neuroendocrine aspects of emotional reactivity. It is suggested that fearfulness could be considered a basic feature of the temperament of each individual, one that predisposes it to respond similarly to a variety of potentially alarming challenges, but is nevertheless continually modulated during development by the interaction of genetic traits of reactivity with environmental factors, particularly in the juvenile period. Such interaction may explain much of the interindividual variability observed in adaptive responses. |
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The University of Chicago Press |
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0033-5770 |
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doi: 10.1086/418981 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6664 |
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Brinkmann, L.; Gerken, M.; Riek, A. |
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Effect of long-term feed restriction on the health status and welfare of a robust horse breed, the Shetland pony (Equus ferus caballus) |
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Journal Article |
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2013 |
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Research in Veterinary Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Res. Vet. Sci. |
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94 |
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3 |
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826-831 |
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Animal welfare; Blood parameter; Extensive housing; Feed restriction; Horse; Winter conditions |
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Outdoor group housing is increasingly recognized as an appropriate housing system for domesticated horses. The objective of this study was therefore to investigate the effect of potential feed shortage in semi-natural horse keeping systems in winter on animal health and welfare. In 10 female Shetland ponies blood concentrations (NEFA, total protein (TP), total bilirubin (TB), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and thyroxine (T4)), body mass and the body condition score (BCS) were monitored for 7months including a 4months period of feed restriction in five of the 10 ponies. Restrictively fed animals lost 18.4±2.99% of their body mass and the BCS decreased by 2.2±0.8 points (BCS scale: 0=emaciated, 5=obese). Feed restriction led to a continuous increase in TB (P<0.001) and NEFA (P<0.01) concentrations compared to control ponies. The TP and BHB values only differed at the end of the trial with lower concentrations in restricted fed mares (P<0.05). Feed restriction had no effect on thyroxine concentrations. TB concentrations in the feed restricted group were out of the reference range during the entire feeding trial. The increased NEFA concentrations in feed restricted compared to control ponies suggest that fat was mobilized. The BCS, as well as plasma NEFA and TB concentrations were good indicators for a rapid detection of possible health problems caused by undernourishment in horses when kept under semi-natural conditions. In contrast, blood parameters of the control animals were within the reference ranges, suggesting that a year round outdoor housing with additional feed supply is an adequate housing system for a robust horse breed like the Shetland pony. |
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0034-5288 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6601 |
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Taberlet, P.; Waits, L.P.; Luikart, G. |
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Noninvasive genetic sampling: look before you leap |
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1999 |
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Trends in Ecology & Evolution |
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Trends Ecol. Evol |
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14 |
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8 |
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323-327 |
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Hairs; Feces; Feathers; Allelic dropout; Individual identification; Conservation genetics; Behavioural ecology; Pilot study; Microsatellites; Probability of identity |
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Noninvasive sampling allows genetic studies of free-ranging animals without the need to capture or even observe them, and thus allows questions to be addressed that cannot be answered using conventional methods. Initially, this sampling strategy promised to exploit fully the existing DNA-based technology for studies in ethology, conservation biology and population genetics. However, recent work now indicates the need for a more cautious approach, which includes quantifying the genotyping error rate. Despite this, many of the difficulties of noninvasive sampling will probably be overcome with improved methodology. |
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0169-5347 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6573 |
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Krueger, K.; Marr, I.; Dobler, A.; Palme, R. |
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Preservation of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and immunoglobulin A through silica gel drying for field studies in horses |
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Journal Article |
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2019 |
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Conservation Physiology |
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conphys |
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7 |
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1 |
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Non-invasive methods enable stress evaluation through measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs), and immunoglobulin A (IgA) in the feces avoiding stressful blood drawing or stressful restraining of animals in the field. However, FGMs and IgA are mostly analysed in freshly frozen samples, which is difficult when fresh samples cannot be frozen immediately or frozen samples cannot be stored or transported. Good results were also derived from air-dried fecal samples, which are hampered by unstable air humidity in the field. These difficulties may be overcome, when drying of samples could be induced with colorless silica gel (SiO2) granules in a secure set-up, such as an air tight tube. We determined the speed of drying 1.5 g of a fresh fecal sample from six horses on air and on silica gel. Furthermore, FGMs and IgA were analysed in differently stored subsamples from 12 horses: in frozen fecal samples, in air- or silica gel-dried samples stored for 1 day and for 7 days, and in wet fecal samples kept in a tube at room temperature for 7 days. FGM levels remained stable in feces dried on air or on silica gel for 7 days, whereas IgA quantities showed a significant loss. Under field conditions, when freezing or transporting the frozen samples is not possible and humidity hampers air drying, drying samples on silica gel in air tight tubes appears to be very helpful and reliable for analysing FGMs. |
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2051-1434 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6594 |
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Ahrendt, L.P.; Labouriau, R.; Malmkvist, J.; Nicol, C.J.; Christensen, J.W. |
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Development of a standard test to assess negative reinforcement learning in horses |
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Journal Article |
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2015 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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169 |
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38-42 |
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Algometry; Horse behaviour; Learning performance; Operant conditioning; Pressure-release; Horse training |
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Most horses are trained by negative reinforcement. Currently, however, no standardised test for evaluating horses' negative reinforcement learning ability is available. The aim of this study was to develop an objective test to investigate negative reinforcement learning in horses. Twenty-four Icelandic horses (3 years old) were included in this study. The horses were tested in a pressure-release task on three separate days with 10, 7 and 5 trials on each side, respectively. Each trial consisted of pressure being applied on the hindquarter with an algometer. The force of the pressure was increased until the horse moved laterally away from the point of pressure. There was a significant decrease in required force over trials on the first test day (P<0.001), but not the second and third day. The intercepts on days 2 and 3 differed significantly from day 1 (P<0.001), but not each other. Significantly stronger force was required on the right side compared to the left (P<0.001), but there was no difference between first and second side tested (P=0.56). Individual performance was evaluated by median-force and the change in force over trials on the first test day. These two measures may explain different characteristics of negative reinforcement learning. In conclusion, this study presents a novel, standardised test for evaluating negative reinforcement learning ability in horses. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6650 |
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Baragli, P.; Scopa, C.; Maglieri, V.; Palagi, E. |
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If horses had toes: demonstrating mirror self recognition at group level in Equus caballus |
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2021 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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Mirror self-recognition (MSR), investigated in primates and recently in non-primate species, is considered a measure of self-awareness. Nowadays, the only reliable test for investigating MSR potential skills consists in the untrained response to a visual body mark detected using a reflective surface. Here, we report the first evidence of MSR at group level in horses, by facing the weaknesses of methodology present in a previous pilot study. Fourteen horses were used in a 4-phases mirror test (covered mirror, open mirror, invisible mark, visible colored mark). After engaging in a series of contingency behaviors (looking behind the mirror, peek-a-boo, head and tongue movements), our horses used the mirror surface to guide their movements towards their colored cheeks, thus showing that they can recognize themselves in a mirror. The analysis at the group level, which 'marks' a turning point in the analytical technique of MSR exploration in non-primate species, showed that horses spent a longer time in scratching their faces when marked with the visible mark compared to the non-visible mark. This finding indicates that horses did not see the non-visible mark and that they did not touch their own face guided by the tactile sensation, suggesting the presence of MSR in horses. Although a heated debate on the binary versus gradualist model in the MSR interpretation exists, recent empirical pieces of evidence, including ours, indicate that MSR is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon that appeared once in phylogeny and that a convergent evolution mechanism can be at the basis of its presence in phylogenetically distant taxa. |
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1435-9456 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ Baragli2021 |
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6631 |
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