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Author Merkies, K.; McKechnie, M.J.; Zakrajsek, E. doi  openurl
  Title Behavioural and physiological responses of therapy horses to mentally traumatized humans Type Journal Article
  Year 2018 Publication Applied Animal Behaviour Science Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume Issue Pages (up)  
  Keywords Equine-assisted therapy; Ptsd; Horse; Behaviour; Cortisol; Heart rate  
  Abstract The benefits to humans of equine-assisted therapy (EAT) have been well-researched, however few studies have analyzed the effects on the horse. Understanding how differing mental states of humans affect the behaviour and response of the horse can assist in providing optimal outcomes for both horse and human. Four humans clinically diagnosed and under care of a psychotherapist for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) were matched physically to four neurotypical control humans and individually subjected to each of 17 therapy horses loose in a round pen. A professional acting coach instructed the control humans in replicating the physical movements of their paired PTSD individual. Both horses and humans were equipped with a heart rate (HR) monitor recording HR every 5secs. Saliva samples were collected from each horse 30 min before and 30 min after each trial to analyze cortisol concentrations. Each trial consisted of 5 min of baseline observation of the horse alone in the round pen after which the human entered the round pen for 2 min, followed by an additional 5 min of the horse alone. Behavioural observations indicative of stress in the horse (gait, head height, ear orientation, body orientation, distance from the human, latency of approach to the human, vocalizations, and chewing) were retrospectively collected from video recordings of each trial and analyzed using a repeated measures GLIMMIX with Tukey's multiple comparisons for differences between treatments and time periods. Horses moved slower (p < 0.0001), carried their head lower (p < 0.0001), vocalized less (p < 0.0001), and chewed less (p < 0.0001) when any human was present with them in the round pen. Horse HR increased in the presence of the PTSD humans, even after the PTSD human left the pen (p < 0.0001). Since two of the PTSD/control human pairs were experienced with horses and two were not, a post-hoc analysis showed that horses approached quicker (p < 0.016) and stood closer (p < 0.0082) to humans who were experienced with horses. Horse HR was lower when with inexperienced humans (p < 0.0001) whereas inexperienced human HR was higher (p < 0.0001). Horse salivary cortisol did not differ between exposure to PTSD and control humans (p > 0.32). Overall, behavioural and physiological responses of horses to humans are more pronounced based on human experience with horses than whether the human is diagnosed with a mental disorder. This may be a reflection of a directness of movement associated with humans who are experienced with horses that makes the horse more attentive. It appears that horses respond more to physical cues from the human rather than emotional cues. This knowledge is important in tailoring therapy programs and justifying horse responses when interacting with a patient in a therapy setting.  
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  ISSN 0168-1591 ISBN Medium  
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  Notes Approved no  
  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 6385  
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Author Krueger., K.; Farmer, K. pdf  url
openurl 
  Title Social learning in Horses: Differs from individual learning only in the learning stimulus and not in the learning mechanisms Type Abstract
  Year 2018 Publication 14th Meeting of the Internatinoal Society for Equitation Science Abbreviated Journal 14th Meeting ISES  
  Volume Issue Pages (up)  
  Keywords horse; individual learning; learning mechanisms; learning stimuli; social learning  
  Abstract Equine welfare can be enhanced by applying species specific training. This may incorporate social learning, as horses are highly social and social stimuli are of primary importance. Social learning is comparable to individual learning in its learning mechanisms, differing primarily in the way it is stimulated. Our initial study showed that horses of different breeds (N = 38) follow humans after observing other horses doing so, but only if the observed horse was familiar to and higher ranking than the observer (Fisher's exact test: N = 12, P = 0.003). A second study showed that horses and ponies (N = 25) learned to pull a rope to open a feeding apparatus after observing demonstrations by conspecifics, again, only if the demonstrating horse was older and higher ranking than the observer (Fisher's combination test, N = 3, v2 = 27.71, p = 0.006). Our third approach showed that horses and ponies (N = 24) learned to press a switch to open a feeding apparatus after observing a familiar person (GzLM: N = 24, z = 2.33, P = 0.02). Most recently, we confronted horses and ponies (N = 50) with persons demonstrating different techniques for opening a feeding apparatus. In this study we investigated whether the horses would copy the demonstrators' techniques or apply their own. Here only some horses copied the technique, and most of the successful learners used their mouths irrespective of the demonstrators' postures (Chi Square Test: N = 40, df = 2, &#967;2 = 31.4, p < 0.001). In all the approaches social stimuli elicited learning processes in the test horses, while only a few individuals in the control groups mastered the tasks by individual learning. The following behaviour observed in the initial study may have been facilitated by a social stimuli (social facilitation), and the opening of the feed boxes in the subsequent studies appear to be mostly the result of enhancement (social enhancement). Some horses may have used the social stimuli at first and continued their learning process by individual trial and error. However, the horses were also selective in whom and some in how to copy. This may have been conditioned (socially conditioned) or the result of simple forms of reasoning on the reliability of the particular information provided by demonstrators of certain social ranks or social positions, as high ranking and familiar horses and familiar persons were copied and some imitated exactly.

Lay person message: Traditional riding instructions suggest that horses learn by observing other horses. For example, older, more experienced driving horses are used for initial training of young driving horses. We have shown that horses indeed use learning stimuli provided by other horse, as well as by humans. Horses readily accept stimuli observed in high ranking and familiar horses, and familiar persons. Such stimuli elicit learning processes which are comparable to individual learning. We suggest applying social learning whenever possible, as it is much faster and less stressful than individual learning, where learners experience negative outcomes in trial and error learning.
 
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Serial 6405  
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Author Pérez-Barbería, F.J.; Shultz, S.; Dunbar, R.I. url  doi
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  Title Evidence for coevolution of sociality and relative brain size in three orders of mammals Type Journal Article
  Year 2007 Publication Evolution Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 61 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Pérez-Barbería2007 Serial 6221  
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Author Van Schaik, C.P.; Burkart, J.M. url  doi
openurl 
  Title Social learning and evolution: the cultural intelligence hypothesis Type Journal Article
  Year 2011 Publication Philos Trans R Soc B Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 366 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Van Schaik2011 Serial 6227  
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Author Heyes, C. url  doi
openurl 
  Title What's social about social learning? Type Journal Article
  Year 2012 Publication J Comp Psychol Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 120 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Heyes2012 Serial 6228  
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Author Van Horik, J.; Emery, N. url  doi
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  Title Evolution of cognition Type Journal Article
  Year 2011 Publication Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 2 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Van Horik2011 Serial 6230  
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Author Shettleworth, S.J. url  doi
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  Title The evolution of comparative cognition: is the snark still a Boojum? Type Journal Article
  Year 2009 Publication Behav Processes Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 80 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Shettleworth2009 Serial 6231  
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Author Kruska, D. url  doi
openurl 
  Title Mammalian domestication and its effect on brain structure and behavior Type Book Chapter
  Year 1988 Publication Intelligence and Evolutionary Biology Abbreviated Journal  
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  Publisher Springer-Verlag Place of Publication New York Editor Jerison, H.J.; Jerison, I.  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Kruska1988 Serial 6232  
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Author Kruska, D. url  doi
openurl 
  Title The effect of domestication on brain size and composition in the mink (Mustela vison) Type Journal Article
  Year 1996 Publication J Zool Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 239 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Kruska1996 Serial 6234  
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Author Kruska, D.C.T. url  doi
openurl 
  Title On the evolutionary significance of encephalization in some eutherian mammals: effects of adaptive radiation, domestication, and feralization Type Journal Article
  Year 2005 Publication Brain Behav Evol Abbreviated Journal  
  Volume 65 Issue Pages (up)  
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  Notes Approved no  
  Call Number Equine Behaviour @ team @ Kruska2005 Serial 6235  
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