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Author |
Plotnik, J.M.; de Waal, F.B.M.; Reiss, D. |
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Title |
Self-recognition in an Asian elephant |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |
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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |
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Volume |
103 |
Issue |
45 |
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17053-17057 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Asia; *Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Elephants/*psychology; Female; Photic Stimulation |
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Considered an indicator of self-awareness, mirror self-recognition (MSR) has long seemed limited to humans and apes. In both phylogeny and human ontogeny, MSR is thought to correlate with higher forms of empathy and altruistic behavior. Apart from humans and apes, dolphins and elephants are also known for such capacities. After the recent discovery of MSR in dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), elephants thus were the next logical candidate species. We exposed three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to a large mirror to investigate their responses. Animals that possess MSR typically progress through four stages of behavior when facing a mirror: (i) social responses, (ii) physical inspection (e.g., looking behind the mirror), (iii) repetitive mirror-testing behavior, and (iv) realization of seeing themselves. Visible marks and invisible sham-marks were applied to the elephants' heads to test whether they would pass the litmus “mark test” for MSR in which an individual spontaneously uses a mirror to touch an otherwise imperceptible mark on its own body. Here, we report a successful MSR elephant study and report striking parallels in the progression of responses to mirrors among apes, dolphins, and elephants. These parallels suggest convergent cognitive evolution most likely related to complex sociality and cooperation. |
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Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Department of Psychology, Emory University, 532 North Kligo Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA |
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0027-8424 |
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PMID:17075063 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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408 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title |
Chimpanzee politics:power and sex among apes. |
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1982 |
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Johns Hopkins University Press |
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Baltimore |
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978-0801886560 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4857 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title |
Animal Social Conflict |
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Miscellaneous |
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1993 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4894 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title |
Peacemaking Among Primates |
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Miscellaneous |
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1989 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4924 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title |
Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |
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Year |
2008 |
Publication |
Annual Review of Psychology |
Abbreviated Journal |
Annu Rev Psychol |
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59 |
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1 |
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279-300 |
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Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory. |
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Annual Reviews |
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0066-4308 |
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doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5058 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M.; Aureli, F. |
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Title |
Consolation, reconciliation, and a possible cognitive difference between macaque and chimpanzee |
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Year |
1996 |
Publication |
Reaching into Thought: The Minds of the Great Apes |
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80–110. |
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Russon,A.E.; Bard, K.A.; Parker, S.T. |
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Cambridge University Press |
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Cambridge |
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Russon,A.E.; Bard, K.A.; Parker, S.T. |
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no |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5060 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M.; Luttrell, L.M. |
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Title |
Mechanisms of social reciprocity in three primate species: Symmetrical relationship characteristics or cognition? |
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1988 |
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Ethology and Sociobiology |
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9 |
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2–4 |
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101-118 |
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Reciprocity; Agonistic intervention; Cognition; Chimpanzees; Macaques |
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Agonistic intervention behavior was observed in captive groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and stumptail monkeys (M. arctoides). Reciprocity correlations of interventions were determined while removing from the data the effects of several symmetrical relationship characteristics, that is, matrillineal kinship, proximity relations, and same-sex combination. It was considered likely that if significant reciprocity persisted after controlling for these characteristics, the reciprocity was based on cognitive mechanisms. Statistical significance was tested by means of recently developed matrix permutation procedures. All three species exhibited significant reciprocity with regard to beneficial interventions, even after controlling for symmetrical traits. Harmful interventions were, however, reciprocal among chimpanzees only. This species showed a “revenge system”, that is, if A often intervened against B, B did the same to A. In contrast, both macaque species showed significantly inversed reciprocity in their harmful interventions: if A often intervened against B, B rarely intervened against A. Further analysis indicates that the strict hierarchy of macaques prevents them from achieving complete reciprocity. Compared to chimpanzees, macaques rarely intervene against higher ranking group members. The observed contrast can be partially explained on the basis of differences in available space, as indicated by a comparison of indoor and outdoor living conditions for the chimpanzee colony. Yet, even when such spatial factors are taken into account, substantial behavior differences between chimpanzees and macaques remain. |
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0162-3095 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5809 |
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Author |
de Waal, F.B.M.; Ferrari, P.F. |
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Title |
Towards a bottom-up perspective on animal and human cognition |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
Publication |
Trends in Cognitive Sciences |
Abbreviated Journal |
Trends Cognit. Sci. |
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14 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
201-207 |
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Over the last few decades, comparative cognitive research has focused on the pinnacles of mental evolution, asking all-or-nothing questions such as which animals (if any) possess a theory of mind, culture, linguistic abilities, future planning, and so on. Research programs adopting this top-down perspective have often pitted one taxon against another, resulting in sharp dividing lines. Insight into the underlying mechanisms has lagged behind. A dramatic change in focus now seems to be under way, however, with increased appreciation that the basic building blocks of cognition might be shared across a wide range of species. We argue that this bottom-up perspective, which focuses on the constituent capacities underlying larger cognitive phenomena, is more in line with both neuroscience and evolutionary biology. |
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1364-6613 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5857 |
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