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| Author |
Kondo, S.; Sekine, J.; Okubo, M.; Asahida, Y. |
| Title |
The effect of group size and space allowance on the agonistic and spacing behavior of cattle |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
1989 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
24 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
127-135 |
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| Abstract |
The number of agonistic encounters in a group (frequency per h) and the mean distance to the nearest neighbor in a group (m) were analyzed by a multiple regression on the group size (number of animals in a group) and space allowance (m3 per animal) in each group of calves (6–13 months old, Holstein female and castrated male) and adult cattle (2–12 years old, Holstein heifers and cows or Holstein and Hereford grazing beef cattle). A total of 196 calves and 602 adult animals were used in this analysis. In calves, a significant correlation was found between agonistic behavior and space allowance (r=-0.48, P<0.01), but not between agonistic behavior and group sizes. The mean distance to the nearest neighbor in calf groups increased as the group size decreased and space allowance increased (R2=0.66, P<0.01). In adult cattle, the number of agonistic encounters increased linearly as the group size increased (r=+0.37, P<0.05). The relationship between agonistic behavior and 1(space allowance)2 was significant (r=+0.48, P<0.05). The mean distance to the nearest neighbor tended to increase as the group size decreased and the space allowance increased (R2=0.68, P<0.01). When the space allowance increased beyond 360 m2 per animal, the average distance to the nearest neighbor in the adult group was maintained within the range of 10–12 m. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5473 |
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Pollard, J.C.; Littlejohn, R.P. |
| Title |
The effects of pen size on the behaviour of farmed red deer stags confined in yards |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
1996 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
47 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
247-253 |
| Keywords |
Red deer; Handling; Density; Aggression; Farming |
| Abstract |
To determine whether pen size affected the behaviour and welfare of farmed red deer confined temporarily in yards, four groups of ten 2-year-old stags were confined for 40 min or 2 days in each of spring and summer, in either large (5 m × 4 m ) or small (2.5 m × 4) pens. In the small pens, wall pacing and vertical/horizontal head movements at the walls were more frequently observed (P < 0.05) and were carried out by a greater percentage of the deer (P < 0.001), and distances between individuals were smaller (P < 0.01), than observations in the large pens. Aggressive activities varied seasonally, with head-butting and chasing being seen most frequently in the spring (P < 0.05) and biting and kicking being seen most frequently in the summer (P < 0.05), and the overall frequency of aggressive activities was low in summer. In spring, in small pens there were fewer threats to head-butt, head butts by moving animals, and less stepping activity than in large pens (P < 0.05). In summer, in small pens there were more threats to butt and more stepping activity than in the large pens (P < 0.05). In both seasons, aggressive activities were correlated with wall pacing (r = 0.58 and 0.55, respectively). It was concluded that the effect of pen size on the frequency and nature of aggressive and other activities varied seasonally. In order minimise aggression and stepping activity, small pens were favoured in spring and large pens were favoured in summer. However, in both seasons there were greater inter-individual distances and reduced pacing and head movements at the walls in large pens. This latter finding may indicate that the large pens were less aversive to the deer, regardless of season. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5472 |
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| Author |
Lisa Nash, H.; Song, G.K.; Price, E.O. |
| Title |
Head partitions facilitate feeding by subordinate horses in the presence of dominant pen-mates |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
1987 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
19 |
Issue |
1-2 |
Pages |
179-182 |
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| Abstract |
The purpose of the following study was to determine if head partitions would facilitate feeding by subordinate horses in the presence of dominant pen-mates. Six pairs of mares, each with established dominant-subordinate relationships, were allowed to compete for feed in a 112-cm trough following 24 h of deprivation. Time spent feeding by each mare in each pair was recorded with a wire-mesh partition, a solid plywood partition or no partition dividing the trough. Differences in feeding times between dominant and subordinate mares were greatest in the absence of a partition and least (P<0.05) with the wire barrier in place. Differences in feeding times with the solid plywood barrier were not significantly different from either of the other treatment conditions. It was concluded that head partitions on a trough facilitate feeding by subordinate horses in the presence of dominant pen-mates and thus provide a more equitable distribution of food resources. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5411 |
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| Author |
Søndergaard, E.; Jensen, M.B.; Nicol, C.J. |
| Title |
Motivation for social contact in horses measured by operant conditioning |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2011 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
132 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
131-137 |
| Keywords |
Horse; Housing; Social behaviour; Operant conditioning; Motivation |
| Abstract |
Although horses are social animals they are often housed individually with limited social contact to other horses and this may compromise their welfare. The present study included eight young female horses and investigated the strength of motivation for access to full social contact, head contact and muzzle contact, respectively, to a familiar companion horse. Horses were housed individually next to their companion horse and separations between pens prevented physical contact. During daily test sessions horses were brought to a test area where they could access an arena allowing social contact. Arena access during 3 min was given after completion of a predetermined number of responses on a panel. Fixed ratios (FR) of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 responses per arena access were applied in a random order, one per daily test session, within each test week (Monday to Friday), and the number of rewards per daily test session was recorded. All horses could access all three types of social contact in a cross-over design, and an empty arena was used as control. Motivational strength was assessed using elasticity of demand functions, which were estimated based on the number of rewards earned and FR. Elasticities of demand for the three types of social contact were low (-0.20), and not significantly different, although increasing FR still resulted in a decrease in rewards obtained for all three types of social contact (P < 0.001). Across FR-levels horses earned more rewards for social contact than for an empty arena, as shown by much higher intercept values (2.51 vs. 0.99; P < 0.001). However, the elasticity of demand for infrequent access to an empty arena (-0.08) was lower than for social contact (P < 0.01) and not significantly different from zero (P = 0.07). Horses performed more social behaviour the lesser the restriction on social contact (full > head > muzzle). However, the finding that horses showed a similar and high motivation for all three types of social contact suggests that they are valued equally highly in a situation where the alternative is no social contact. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5410 |
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Birke, L.; Hockenhull, J.; Creighton, E.; Pinno, L.; Mee, J.; Mills, D. |
| Title |
Horses' responses to variation in human approach |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
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Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
In Press, Corrected Proof |
Issue |
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Pages |
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Horse; Flight response; Human approach; Body posture; Approach speed; Natural horsemanship |
| Abstract |
The behaviour of humans around horses is thought to have a substantial impact on how people are perceived in subsequent interactions and many horse trainers give detailed advice on how handlers should behave when initially approaching a loose horse. Here we report on three studies designed to explore the effect of different human approach styles on the behaviour of naïve and experienced horses. In the first study, the change in flight distance (distance at which horses started to avoid an approaching human) of twelve semi-feral Dartmoor ponies, undergoing training to allow handling, was assessed. Over the 10 handling sessions median flight distance decreased significantly (p < 0.001) from 2.38 m to 0.00 m and there was a significant positive shift in the ponies' behaviour following the appearance of the researcher (p = 0.002). In a second study the effect of a direct (vigorous, swinging a lead rope and with eye contact) versus indirect (relaxed, no rope swinging and without eye contact) approach style was assessed on six adult experienced riding horses. The mean flight distance during a direct approach style (6.87 m) was significantly greater than that which occurred during an indirect approach style (2.32 m). Direction of approach was not found to significantly affect flight distance. In a third study, the effect of the rope was removed and a similar method to the second study applied to a group of naïve, feral ponies. The effect of different components of approach style, speed of approach, handler body posture and direction of gaze, which might contribute to observed differences in behavioural responses, were then examined systematically in this population. This revealed no significant difference in mean flight distance between the two approach styles (2.28 m indirect versus 2.37 m direct approach), but ponies were significantly more likely to move off in trot (p = 0.025) and to travel further (p = 0.001) when a direct approach was used. Speed of approach was the most salient factor, with a fast approach increasing both the tendency to move off in trot (p < 0.001) and distance travelled (p < 0.001). Body posture (relaxed or tense) had no effect, while flight distance was significantly greater when the person was looking away (p = 0.045). These results suggest horses may have an important egocentric spatial barrier, which perhaps relates to personal space and triggering of the flight response. Contrary to popular belief, body posture did not appear to be very important in the contexts examined unless accompanied by extraneous aids, while the speed of approach is particularly significant. These results are of important practical relevance in reducing the risk of injury, and the effective management of horses with minimal stress. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5401 |
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| Author |
Normando, S.; Meers, L.; Samuels, W.E.; Faustini, M.; Ödberg, F.O. |
| Title |
Variables affecting the prevalence of behavioural problems in horses. Can riding style and other management factors be significant? |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2011 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
133 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
186-198 |
| Keywords |
Horse; Management; Problem behaviour; Riding style; Saddle; Stereotypies |
| Abstract |
The effects of riding style and various management factors on the prevalence of stereotypies and other behavioural problems among 346 mixed-breed saddle horses (phase 1) and 101 Arabian horses (phase 2) were analysed through a questionnaire answered by owners. In phase 1, the questionnaire data were partially validated through 20-min observations of 81 (23.3%) of the cases. Results indicate that horses primarily ridden in the English style were reported to be significantly more likely to display stereotypies (p < 0.001), problems when transported (p = 0.001), multiple behavioural problems (p < 0.001), and to have more restrictive stabling (p < 0.001) than horses ridden with other styles. When only Arabian horses were assessed in phase 2, however, there was no significant difference in behavioural problems between the Arabian horses ridden English style versus other riding styles. However Arabian horses were housed less restrictively than horses in phase 1 and English riding style and restrictive stabling tended to exacerbate each other's association with stereotypies. Management-related effects were found when, e.g., horses housed in restrictive stabling were more frequently reported to show locomotion stereotypies (p = 0.02) and those denied ad libitum hay displayed stereotypic wood-chewing behaviour (p = 0.02). To aid diagnosing and prioritizing interventions and care, the most predictive subsets of factors were computed for the various problem behaviours. E.g., among saddle horses, a statistical model comprised of the main riding style, duration of access to a paddock, and horse's age predicted whether a horse was reported to display any behavioural problem 62% of the time. This study supports the effects of management and handling on the prevalence of behavioural problems, and helps prioritize the relative importance of broad management categories on equine welfare. In particular, it underscores the importance of riding style on the well-being of saddle horses. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5399 |
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Górecka-Bruzda, A.; Jastrzebska, E.; Sosnowska, Z.; Jaworski, Z.; Jezierski, T.; Chruszczewski, M.H. |
| Title |
Reactivity to humans and fearfulness tests: Field validation in Polish Cold Blood Horses |
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Journal Article |
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Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
In Press, Corrected Proof |
Issue |
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Pages |
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Cold blood horse; Temperament; Reactivity; Behavioural tests; Questionnaire; Validity |
| Abstract |
The aim of the present paper was to examine in field conditions the feasibility of the experimentally developed behavioural tests for assessment of two temperamental traits of cold blood horses: fearfulness and reactivity to humans. The predictive, convergent and discriminant validity of the tests was evaluated. Fifty-three Polish Cold Blood Horses (CBHs) were tested with the battery of behavioural tests involving passive and active contact with humans, handling, startling, novel object and surface tests. The behaviour of horses in real, on-farm conditions was evaluated with the caretaker's questionnaire (CQ). The tests demonstrated that a non-startling object and unforced human manipulations were willingly accepted by horses. In contrast, the horses were more reluctant to interact spontaneously with humans and showed longer persistence of a withdrawal reaction when presented with a startling stimulus or when restrained. CQ confirmed the common opinion of calmness, patience and good manageability of the CBHs. The results of behavioural tests were correlated with the scores derived from factor analysis of the CQ. Moreover, the majority of tests measures were correlated within reactivity to humans (median rs = 0.56) and fear tests (median rs = 0.41). Thus, predictive and convergent validity of the employed tests has been confirmed. However, reactivity to humans and fear measures were also correlated (median rs = 0.36), therefore discriminant validity of the tests used has been not confirmed. Therefore, we suggest that the parameters of tests designed to measure two separate traits: reactivity to humans and fearfulness, measured in fact avoidance of potential harm and withdrawal behaviour. Although selection for the work-appropriate behaviour is almost nonexistent nowadays, we conclude that Polish Cold Blood Horses are still predisposed for disciplines of equitation and driving, which demand an easy to handle horse. Nonetheless, we recommend behavioural testing of horses when approving for breeding. For this purpose, we can confirm usefulness of the experimentally developed tests in field assessment of general behavioural reactivity of horses. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5395 |
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Søndergaard, E.; Jensen, M.B.; Nicol, C.J. |
| Title |
Motivation for social contact in horses measured by operant conditioning |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
In Press, Corrected Proof |
Issue |
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Pages |
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| Keywords |
Horse; Housing; Social behaviour; Operant conditioning; Motivation |
| Abstract |
Although horses are social animals they are often housed individually with limited social contact to other horses and this may compromise their welfare. The present study included eight young female horses and investigated the strength of motivation for access to full social contact, head contact and muzzle contact, respectively, to a familiar companion horse. Horses were housed individually next to their companion horse and separations between pens prevented physical contact. During daily test sessions horses were brought to a test area where they could access an arena allowing social contact. Arena access during 3 min was given after completion of a predetermined number of responses on a panel. Fixed ratios (FR) of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 responses per arena access were applied in a random order, one per daily test session, within each test week (Monday to Friday), and the number of rewards per daily test session was recorded. All horses could access all three types of social contact in a cross-over design, and an empty arena was used as control. Motivational strength was assessed using elasticity of demand functions, which were estimated based on the number of rewards earned and FR. Elasticities of demand for the three types of social contact were low (-0.20), and not significantly different, although increasing FR still resulted in a decrease in rewards obtained for all three types of social contact (P < 0.001). Across FR-levels horses earned more rewards for social contact than for an empty arena, as shown by much higher intercept values (2.51 vs. 0.99; P < 0.001). However, the elasticity of demand for infrequent access to an empty arena (-0.08) was lower than for social contact (P < 0.01) and not significantly different from zero (P = 0.07). Horses performed more social behaviour the lesser the restriction on social contact (full > head > muzzle). However, the finding that horses showed a similar and high motivation for all three types of social contact suggests that they are valued equally highly in a situation where the alternative is no social contact. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5388 |
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Mazurek, M.; McGee, M.; Minchin, W.; Crowe, M.A.; Earley, B. |
| Title |
Is the avoidance distance test for the assessment of animals' responsiveness to humans influenced by either the dominant or flightiest animal in the group? |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2011 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
132 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
107-113 |
| Keywords |
Cattle; Avoidance distance; Human-animal relationship (HAR); Dominance |
| Abstract |
A previously described (Windschnurer et al., 2009) avoidance distance test was used to assess animals’ fear of humans in order to quantify the human–animal relationship (HAR). This study investigated the influence of the dominant and flightiest animals within a group on the responsiveness of animals during the avoidance distance test. Eighty-eight pregnant heifers comprised of four different genotypes were used (22 animals per genotype): Limousin × Holstein-Friesian, Limousin × Simmental, Charolais × Limousin, and Charolais × Simmental. Sixty of the 88 heifers were group housed (n = 5) into 12 pens with 3 pens per breed, while 28 heifers were singly housed (seven heifers per breed). A reactivity test was performed on days 10, 18, 25 and 30 post-housing on the singly housed heifers, and then on the group housed heifers, on the same days, to calculate a reactivity score. On days 33 and 37 flight and dominance tests, respectively, were performed to identify the flightiest and the dominant animal within each group. On day 41, an avoidance test, measuring both the avoidance distance towards a familiar and an unfamiliar human, was performed on all heifers. No difference (P > 0.05) in reactivity scores was found between the genotypes, between pens for the group housed heifers or between singly housed and group housed heifers (P = 0.28). The avoidance distance (AD) of singly (S) housed heifers towards a familiar (F) (ADSF) human was shorter (P < 0.001) than the avoidance distance of group (G) housed heifers towards an unfamiliar human (ADSU). The ADSF and ADGF were correlated with the ADSU and ADGU (R = 0.87 for singly housed heifers; R = 0.61 for group housed heifers, P < 0.001). For the singly housed heifers, no correlation was observed between reactivity score and ADSF (R = 0.36, P = 0.18), whereas the reactivity score and ADSU were correlated (R = 0.68, P = 0.004). For the group housed heifers no significant correlation was detected between the reactivity score and ADGF (R = 0.18, P = 0.22) or ADGU (R = −0.11, P = 0.39). No influence of the most dominant animal and the flightiest animals was found on the behaviour of the group in term of avoidance distance and reactivity (P > 0.05). It is concluded that the assessment of the fear of the animals towards humans using the avoidance test at the feed bunk may be useful for singly and group housed heifers and that the leaders of a group such as the flightiest animal or the dominant animal did not influence the avoidance distance test. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5376 |
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| Author |
Leiner, L.; Fendt, M. |
| Title |
Behavioural fear and heart rate responses of horses after exposure to novel objects: Effects of habituation |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2011 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume |
131 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
104-109 |
| Keywords |
Anxiety; Avoidance; Behavioural test; Emotion; Fear; Flight; Habituation; Horse; Vocalization |
| Abstract |
The emotion fear promotes the fitness of wild animals. In a farm environment, exaggerated fear, e.g., in horses, can cause several problems. Therefore, knowledge about fear in horses helps to prevent or to handle potential fear-inducing situations. The present study investigated which behavioural fear responses can be observed during exposure of horses to a novel stimulus, whether these behavioural responses are correlated with physiological changes, and whether and how specifically these changes are reduced after habituation training to one of the novel objects. Our data shows that behavioural and physiological fear responses in horses are correlated, are reliable to observe and to measure, and appear in a typical chronological order. Furthermore, after habituation-training to an object, the fear response to this object is specifically attenuated whereas the fear response to another object remains. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5332 |
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