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Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1982). The Development of Altruism: Alternative Research Strategies. The Development of Prosocial Behavior, .
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Zahn-Waxler, C. & R. - Y., M. (1982). The development of altruism: Alternative research strategies. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 109–138). New York: Academic Press.
Abstract: Zahn-Waxler, C. & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1982) The development of altruism:
Alternative research strategies. In: The development of prosocial behavior, ed.
N. Eisenberg. Academic Press. [aSDP]
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Boitani, L. (1982). Patterns of homesites attendance in two Minnesota wolf packs. In F. H. Harrington, & P. C. Paquet (Eds.), Wolves of the World: Perspectives of Behavior, Ecology and Conservation. New York: Noyes, Park Ridge.
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Heffner, R. S., & Heffner, H. E. (1983). Hearing in large mammals: Horses (Equus caballus) and cattle (Bos taurus). Behavioral Neuroscience, 97(2), 299–309.
Abstract: Determined behavioral audiograms for 3 horses and 2 cows. Horses' hearing ranged from 55 Hz to 33.3 kHz, with a region of best sensitivity from 1 to 16 kHz. Cattle hearing ranged from 23 Hz to 35 kHz, with a well-defined point of best sensitivity at 8 kHz. Of the 2 species, cattle proved to have more acute hearing, with a lowest threshold of –21 db (re 20 μN/m–2) compared with the horses' lowest threshold of 7 db. Comparative analysis of the hearing abilities of these 2 species with those of other mammals provides further support for the relation between interaural distance and high-frequency hearing and between high- and low-frequency hearing. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Laut, J. E., Houpt, K. A., Hintz, H. F., & Houpt, T. R. (1985). The effects of caloric dilution on meal patterns and food intake of ponies. Physiol. Behav., 35(4), 549–554.
Abstract: In order to determine if horses will increase their intake in response to caloric dilution, four pony geldings were fed ad lib a mixed grain diet either undiluted (3.4 Mcal/kg of digestible energy) or diluted (wt/wt) with 25% sawdust (2.6 Mcal/kg) or with 50% sawdust (1.7 Mcal/kg). The mean daily caloric intake was 17,457 kcal (3.4 Mcal diet), 17,546 kcal (2.6 Mcal diet) and 12,844 kcal (1.7 Mcal). The mean time spent eating was 246 (3.4 Mcal), 351 (2.6 Mcal), and 408 (1.7 Mcal) minutes/day. Meal size increased and meal frequency decreased with increasing dilution. The median long survivorships of intermeal intervals were 6.4 min (3.4 Mcal), 3.95 min (2.6 Mcal) and 4.91 min (1.7 Mcal). Ponies responded to caloric dilution by increasing the volume of intake to maintain caloric intake when the diet had 25% diluent. When the diet was diluted by 50%, intake was increased, but not at a rate adequate to maintain caloric intake. However, the ponies were able to maintain body weight.
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Gallup, G. G. J. (1985). Do minds exist in species other than our own? Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 9(4), 631–641.
Abstract: An answer to the question of animal awareness depends on evidence, not intuition, anecdote, or debate. This paper examines some of the problems inherent in an analysis of animal awareness, and whether animals might be aware of being aware is offered as a more meaningful distinction. A framework is presented which can be used to make a determination about the extent to which other species have experiences similar to ours based on their ability to make inferences and attributions about mental states in others. The evidence from both humans and animals is consistent with the idea that the capacity to use experience to infer the experience of others is a byproduct of self-awareness.
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Epstein, R. (1985). Animal cognition as the praxist views it. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 9(4), 623–630.
Abstract: The distinction between psychology and praxics provides a clear answer to the question of animal cognition. As Griffin and others have noted, the kinds of behavioral phenomena that lead psychologists to speak of cognition in humans are also observed in nonhuman animals, and therefore those who are convinced of the legitimacy of psychology should not hesitate to speak of and to attempt to study animal cognition. The behavior of organisms is also a legitimate subject matter, and praxics, the study of behavior, has led to significant advances in our understanding of the kinds of behaviors that lead psychologists to speak of cognition. Praxics is a biological science; the attempt by students of behavior to appropriate psychology has been misguided. Generativity theory is an example of a formal theory of behavior that has proved useful both in the engineering of intelligent performances in nonhuman animals and in the prediction of intelligent performances in humans.
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Zentall, T. R., Jackson-Smith, P., Jagielo, J. A., & Nallan, G. B. (1986). Categorical shape and color coding by pigeons. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process, 12(2), 153–159.
Abstract: Categorical coding is the tendency to respond similarly to discriminated stimuli. Past research indicates that pigeons can categorize colors according to at least three spectral regions. Two present experiments assessed the categorical coding of shapes and the existence of a higher order color category (all colors). Pigeons were trained on two independent tasks (matching-to-sample, and oddity-from-sample). One task involved red and a plus sign, the other a circle and green. On test trials one of the two comparison stimuli from one task was replaced by one of the stimuli from the other task. Differential performance based on which of the two stimuli from the other task was introduced suggested categorical coding rules. In Experiment 1 evidence for the categorical coding of sample shapes was found. Categorical color coding was also found; however, it was the comparison stimuli rather than the samples that were categorically coded. Experiment 2 replicated the categorical shape sample effect and ruled out the possibility that the particular colors used were responsible for the categorical coding of comparison stimuli. Overall, the results indicate that pigeons can develop categorical rules involving shapes and colors and that the color categories can be hierarchical.
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Urcuioli, P. J., & Zentall, T. R. (1986). Retrospective coding in pigeons' delayed matching-to-sample. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process, 12(1), 69–77.
Abstract: In this study we examined how coding processes in pigeons' delayed matching-to-sample were affected by the stimuli to be remembered. In Experiment 1, two groups of pigeons initially learned 0-delay matching-to-sample with identical comparison stimuli (vertical and horizontal lines) but with different sample stimuli (red and green hues or vertical and horizontal lines). Longer delays were then introduced between sample offset and comparison onset to assess whether pigeons were prospectively coding the same events (viz., the correct line comparisons) or retrospectively coding different events (viz., their respective sample stimuli). The hue-sample group matched more accurately and showed a slower rate of forgetting than the line-sample group. In Experiment 2, pigeons were trained with either hues or lines as both sample and comparison stimuli, or with hue samples and line comparisons or vice versa. Subsequent delay tests revealed that the hue-sample groups remembered more accurately and generally showed slower rates of forgetting than the line-sample groups. Comparison dimension had little or no effect on performance. Together, these data suggest that pigeons retrospectively code the samples in delayed matching-to-sample.
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Biederman, G. B., Robertson, H. A., & Vanayan, M. (1986). Observational learning of two visual discriminations by pigeons: a within-subjects design. J Exp Anal Behav, 46(1), 45–49.
Abstract: Pigeon's observational learning of successive visual discrimination was studied using within-subject comparisons of data from three experimental conditions. Two pairs of discriminative stimuli were used; each bird was exposed to two of the three experimental conditions, with different pairs of stimuli used in a given bird's two conditions. In one condition, observers were exposed to visual discriminative stimuli only. In a second condition, subjects were exposed to a randomly alternating sequence of two stimuli where the one that would subsequently be used as S+ was paired with the operation of the grain magazine. In a third experimental condition, subjects were exposed to the performance of a conspecific in the operant discrimination procedure. After exposures to conspecific performances, there was facilitation of discriminative learning, relative to that which followed exposures to stimulus and reinforcement sequences or exposures to stimulus sequences alone. Exposure to stimulus and food-delivery sequences enhanced performance relative to exposure to stimulus sequences alone. The differential effects of these three types of exposure were not attributable to order effects or to task difficulty; rather, they clearly were due to the type of exposure.
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