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Hebenbrock, M., Due, M., Holzhausen, H., Sass, A., Stadler, P., & Ellendorff, F. (2005). A new tool to monitor training and performance of sport horses using global positioning system (GPS) with integrated GSM capabilities. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 112(7), 262–265.
Abstract: Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are considered suitable to monitor the position and velocity of horses during cross-country competition or in training. Furthermore, simultaneous recording of life data such as heart rate could be useful to assess the horse's condition during exercise. To test the suitability and reliability of a commercially available GPS system with integrated heart rate recording system and with built in GSM for data transmission, the Fidelak Equipilot Type EP-2003-15/G-2.11 (EP-15/G) was evaluated first for reliability of pulse recording from a pulse generator within the physiological range of horses; furthermore distance, velocity and heart rate recordings were carried out on a standard 1000 m field track with five repetitions. Agreement (% deviation from actually measured distance and from stopwatch-distance based velocity calculations) and variability (Coefficient of Variation for distance, velocity, heart rate) were calculated. From the results it was safe to assume that the heart rate sensor recorded horse heart rates at a high degree of accuracy. Overall distances and velocities are in high agreement with actually measured values. However, overall variability expressed in terms of relative variability (C.V.) is smaller for distance recording (C.V. 0.68%) when compared to velocity (C.V. 1.01%). The system tested is suitable and reliable for simultaneously recording of distance, velocity and heart rates for horses during cross country exercise. GPS-based monitoring of movement along with simultaneous recording of physiological data and the possibility to call upon data will not only be of benefit for training horses or for surveillance during competition, it may also be suitable for distant patient monitoring and in behavioural studies as well as in veterinary medicine in general.
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Pearce, G. P., May-Davis, S., & Greaves, D. (2005). Femoral asymmetry in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Aust Vet J, 83(6), 367–370.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To investigate the occurrence of geometrical asymmetries in the macro-architecture of left and right femurs from Thoroughbred racehorses previously used in competitive training and racing in New South Wales, Australia. METHODS: Detailed postmortem measurements were made of 37 characteristics of left and right femurs from eleven Thoroughbred racehorses euthanased for reasons unrelated to the study. Measurements focused on articulating surfaces and sites of attachment of muscles and ligaments known to be associated with hindlimb locomotion. RESULTS: Five measurements were significantly larger in left compared to right femurs (P < 0.05). The regions showing significant differences between left and right limbs were proximal cranial and overhead medio-lateral widths, greater trochanter depth, depth of the fovea in the femoral head and distal inter-epicondylar width. CONCLUSION: The left-right differences in femoral morphology were associated with sites of muscle and ligament attachment known to be involved with hindlimb function in negotiating turns. These differences may be the result of selection pressure for racing performance on curved race tracks and/or adaptations related to asymmetrical loading of the outside hindlimb associated with repeated negotiation of turns on such tracks.
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Santamaria, S., Bobbert, M. F., Back, W., Barneveld, A., & van Weeren, P. R. (2005). Effect of early training on the jumping technique of horses. Am J Vet Res, 66(3), 418–424.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of early training for jumping by comparing the jumping technique of horses that had received early training with that of horses raised conventionally. ANIMALS: 40 Dutch Warmblood horses. PROCEDURE: The horses were analyzed kinematically during free jumping at 6 months of age. Subsequently, they were allocated into a control group that was raised conventionally and an experimental group that received 30 months of early training starting at 6 months of age. At 4 years of age, after a period of rest in pasture and a short period of training with a rider, both groups were analyzed kinematically during free jumping. Subsequently, both groups started a 1-year intensive training for jumping, and at 5 years of age, they were again analyzed kinematically during free jumping. In addition, the horses competed in a puissance competition to test maximal performance. RESULTS: Whereas there were no differences in jumping technique between experimental and control horses at 6 months of age, at 4 years, the experimental horses jumped in a more effective manner than the control horses; they raised their center of gravity less yet cleared more fences successfully than the control horses. However, at 5 years of age, these differences were not detected. Furthermore, the experimental horses did not perform better than the control horses in the puissance competition. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Specific training for jumping of horses at an early age is unnecessary because the effects on jumping technique and jumping capacity are not permanent.
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Jonsson, H., & Egenvall, A. (2006). Prevalence of gastric ulceration in Swedish Standardbreds in race training. Equine Vet J, 38(3), 209–213.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There is little information about the prevalence of gastric ulcers in Standardbred trotters and potential correlations between ulcers and various traits, e.g. age, sex, performance, temperament and feeding regimens, need further elucidation. OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of ulcers in the gastric squamous mucosa of Swedish Standardbreds was estimated and the associations between ulcer score and age, sex, performance, temperament and feeding regimens were determined. METHODS: Eighty Swedish Standardbreds in active race training, trained by 9 different trainers, underwent gastroscopy. Information on age, gender, status of training, performance over the last 4 months compared with the trainer's expectations before that period, behaviour, eating habits, feed type, bedding type, time spent outdoors per day and medical treatment during the last month was collected. Gastroscopy was performed and lesions in the squamous gastric mucosa were scored from 0 to 4 (0 = no lesions; 4 = > 5 lesions with haemorrhage, > 10 lesions with no haemorrhage, or a large area of diffuse loss of surface epithelium). RESULTS: Twenty-four (30%) of the horses had no lesions in the squamous mucosa, 22 (27.5%) had a score of 1; 21 (26.2%) score 2; 9 (11.2%) score 3; and 4 (5%) score 4. Horses that were in preparatory training and those that had raced during the last month were significantly more affected than horses that were fit for racing but had not raced during the last month, using a logistic regression model with trainer incorporated as a random effect. CONCLUSIONS: The study confirmed a high prevalence of ulcers in the gastric squamous mucosa of Standardbreds in race training. Of the studied parameters only status of training showed a significant association with gastric ulcers of the squamous mucosa. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Gastric ulceration is a common disease and diagnosis should be made by endoscopic examination of the gastric mucosa, since parameters such as age, gender, performance, behaviour, eating habits provide only weak clues as to which horses might be affected. Further studies are needed to determine the aetiology of the syndrome and to find ways to reduce, if possible, the frequency of gastric ulcers.
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Poncet, P. A., Ionita, J. C., Doherr, M. G., & Steiger, A. (2006). [The influence of the socio-economic structure of the breeding farms of Franches-Montagnes horses on the conditions of husbandry]. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd, 148(4), 183–189.
Abstract: The socio-economic structure of the breeding farms of Franches-Montagnes horses (FM) in Switzerland is evaluated on the basis of an investigation carried out in 2002 by the Swiss FM breeding federation. Questionnaires were sent to 3500 of its members and the results include data from 968 breeding enterprises, housing a total of 3965 FM. The quality of the husbandry of FM varies according to factors such as the altitude and the geographical situation of the farms and studs. Socio-economic parameters, such as the role of FM in the business, their use (breeding, driving, riding) and the age and level of professional education of the owners may also have an effect on standards of husbandry. The results show that the owners for whom FM represent a source of income more frequently keep their horses in standing stalls, but give them more time to exercise at liberty than the horses belonging to amateur breeders. Younger and better educated breeders are more likely to house their animals in groups.
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Bystrom, A., Roepstorff, L., & Johnston, C. (2006). Effects of draw reins on limb kinematics. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 452–456.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: No data exist on the GRF-kinematics relation due to changes caused by equestrian interventions. HYPOTHESIS: Through the judicious use of draw reins the rider can influence the kinematics of the horse to meet stated goals of dressage training. Relating the results to previously published kinetic data of the same experiment implies a possible relationship between kinetics and kinematics. METHODS: The kinematics of 8 sound Swedish Warmblood horses were measured whilst the horses were being ridden with and without draw reins. Three conditions were evaluated: 1) draw reins only (DR), 2) combination of draw reins and normal reins (NR+DR) and 3) normal reins only (NR). RESULTS: Head and neck angles were significantly decreased by the draw rein but 4-5 times more so for DR when with NR+DR. The forelimb position at hoof lift-off was significantly more caudal with DR. In the hind limb the hip joint extended more quickly and the hock joint flexed more with NR+DR than with NR. Compared to DR the hip joint angular pattern was not significantly different, but the pelvis was more horizontal. CONCLUSION: Riding with a draw rein can have significant influence on the kinematics of the horse. Some of the observed changes can be coupled to changes in kinetics. The hock joint angle seems to be a fairly reliable indicator of load on the hind limb and the angle of femur appears important for hind limb propulsion, when considered in conjunction with the orientation of the pelvis. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These findings are important for riders and trainers, as kinematic changes are what trainers observe. It is thereby important to ascertain which kinematic changes are consistently coupled to changes in kinetics in order for trainers to be able to judge correctly the success of intended goals. Further studies are warranted to validate and confirm suggested relationships between kinetics and kinematics.
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Gomez Alvarez, C. B., Rhodin, M., Bobber, M. F., Meyer, H., Weishaupt, M. A., Johnston, C., et al. (2006). The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 445–451.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. OBJECTIVES: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. METHODS: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 = as HNP2 with bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 = head and neck lowered, nose behind the vertical; HNP5 = head and neck in extreme high position; HNP6 = head and neck forward and downward. HNP1 was a speed-matched control (head and neck unrestrained). RESULTS: The head and neck positions affected only the flexion-extension motion. The positions in which the neck was extended (HNP2, 3, 5) increased extension in the anterior thoracic region, but increased flexion in the posterior thoracic and lumbar region. For HNP4 the pattern was the opposite. Positions 2, 3 and 5 reduced the flexion-extension range of motion (ROM) while HNP4 increased it. HNP5 was the only position that negatively affected intravertebral pattern symmetry and reduced hindlimb protraction. The stride length was significantly reduced at walk in positions 2, 3, 4 and 5. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant influence of head/neck position on back kinematics. Elevated head and neck induce extension in the thoracic region and flexion in the lumbar region; besides reducing the sagittal range of motion. Lowered head and neck produces the opposite. A very high position of the head and neck seems to disturb normal kinematics. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study provides quantitative data on the effect of head/neck positions on thoracolumbar motion and may help in discussions on the ethical acceptability of some training methods.
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Murray, R. C., Dyson, S. J., Tranquille, C., & Adams, V. (2006). Association of type of sport and performance level with anatomical site of orthopaedic injury diagnosis. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 411–416.
Abstract: REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Although anecdotal reports of increased orthopaedic injury risk in equine sports exist, there is little scientific evidence to support this. OBJECTIVES: To test whether horses undertaking a single competitive sport have increased risk of specific injuries compared to those used for general purpose riding (GP); and whether injury type varies with sport category and performance level. METHODS: Data from 1069 records of horses undergoing orthopaedic evaluation (1998-2003) and meeting inclusion criteria were reviewed. Sport category (GP, showjumping, dressage, eventing, racing), level (nonelite or elite) and diagnosis were recorded. Effects of sport category and level on probability of a specific diagnosis were assessed using chi-squared tests. Logistic regression was used to determine which competitive sports and levels increased risk of injury compared with GP. RESULTS: Overall there was a significant effect of sport category and level on diagnosis (P<0.0001). There was significant difference between anatomical site injured and sport category (P<0.0001); a high risk of forelimb superficial digital flexor tendon injury in elite eventing (P<0.0001) and elite showjumping (P = 0.02); distal deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) injury in elite showjumping (P = 0.002); and hindlimb suspensory ligament injury in elite (P<0.0001) and nonelite (P = 0.001) dressage. There was a low risk of tarsal injury in elite eventing (P = 0.01) and proximal DDFT injury in dressage (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Horses competing in different sports are predisposed to specific injuries; particular sports may increase the risk of injury at certain anatomical sites; and the type and site of injury may reflect the type and level of performance. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These findings could guide clinicians in the diagnosis of sport related injuries.
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Weishaupt, M. A., Wiestner, T., von Peinen, K., Waldern, N., Roepstorff, L., van Weeren, R., et al. (2006). Effect of head and neck position on vertical ground reaction forces and interlimb coordination in the dressage horse ridden at walk and trot on a treadmill. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 387–392.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Little is known in quantitative terms about the influence of different head-neck positions (HNPs) on the loading pattern of the locomotor apparatus. Therefore it is difficult to predict whether a specific riding technique is beneficial for the horse or if it may increase the risk for injury. OBJECTIVE: To improve the understanding of forelimb-hindlimb balance and its underlying temporal changes in relation to different head and neck positions. METHODS: Vertical ground reaction force and time parameters of each limb were measured in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden at walk and trot on an instrumented treadmill in 6 predetermined HNPs: HNP1 – free, unrestrained with loose reins; HNP2 – neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 – neck raised, bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 – neck lowered and flexed, bridge of the nose considerably behind the vertical; HNP5 – neck extremely elevated and bridge of the nose considerably in front of the vertical; HNP6 – neck and head extended forward and downward. Positions were judged by a qualified dressage judge. HNPs were assessed by comparing the data to a velocity-matched reference HNP (HNP2). Differences were tested using paired t test or Wilcoxon signed rank test (P<0.05). RESULTS: At the walk, stride duration and overreach distance increased in HNP1, but decreased in HNP3 and HNP5. Stride impulse was shifted to the forehand in HNP1 and HNP6, but shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. At the trot, stride duration increased in HNP4 and HNP5. Overreach distance was shorter in HNP4. Stride impulse shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. In HNP1 peak forces decreased in the forelimbs; in HNP5 peak forces increased in fore- and hindlimbs. CONCLUSIONS: HNP5 had the biggest impact on limb timing and load distribution and behaved inversely to HNP1 and HNP6. Shortening of forelimb stance duration in HNP5 increased peak forces although the percentage of stride impulse carried by the forelimbs decreased. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: An extremely high HNP affects functionality much more than an extremely low neck.
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Cayado, P., Munoz-Escassi, B., Dominguez, C., Manley, W., Olabarri, B., Sanchez de la Muela, M., et al. (2006). Hormone response to training and competition in athletic horses. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 274–278.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: It is recognised that the amount of psychological stress that an animal encounters determines the degree of response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In human athletes, the added emotive stress of competition is an important element in the adrenal response. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of show-jumping as well as dressage on stress levels by comparing horses' stress response at a horse show compared to their familiar home. METHODS: Fifty-one horses involved in competition were used. EDTA blood samples were collected before exercise, upon arrived to the schooling area (control), and k over a jump or dressage course. After sampling, plasma was separated and stored at -80 degrees C until determinations of cortisol and ACTH were performed. Fourteen healthy horses not involved in competition were used as control group. RESULTS: Competition induced a significant increase in cortisol and ACTH responses in both, jumping and dressage horses and this effect was more apparent in dressage horses. When horses were most experienced, cortisol and ACTH responses were much lower. CONCLUSION: This study shows that competition elicits a classic physiological stress response in horses and that different training programmes induce different responses. It suggests that horses involved in competition can provide a good model to study the exercise-induced stress response.
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