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Nagy, K., Bodó, G., Bárdos, G., & Harnos, A. (2008). Is modified Forssell"s operation superior to cribbing collar in preventing crib-biting in horses? In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Crib-biting (wind-sucking) might be a coping response of the horses to the challenges of
uncontrolled environmental events. Prevention of this stereotypic behaviour evokes physiological responses consistent with increased stress. Reducing the incidence of cribbiting, however, is important in order to prevent undesirable physical and behavioural consequences (tooth erosion, altered gut function, gastric inflammation/ulceration, colic, etc.). Common treatment of crib-biting is the application of a cribbing collar, which limits the flexion of the neck making this stereotypic movement uncomfortable and difficult. Another method, the modified Forssell"s operation, is becoming more and more popular amongst the horse owners. It is based on the removal of the muscles used in crib-biting (m.omohyoideus, m.sternohyoideus, m.sternothyrohyoideus) and the ventral branches of the spinal accessory nerves. Surveys on the success of this surgical procedure have revealed inconsistent results, and, contrary to the cribbing collar, its effect on the stress level have not been studied either. The aim of our study was to determine whether the modified Forssell"s procedure is superior to the cribbing collar treatment. Differences in stress management was tested by a crib-biting provoking test, in which surgically treated horses, crib-biting horses, crib-biting horses with cribbing collar, and normal horses (those showing no stereotypies), altogether 56 horses were compared. In this test, a food bucket had been placed out of the reach of the animal, from which titbits were given 3 times. Behaviour and heart rate variability (HRV) of the horses were recorded and analysed throughout the test. Hypotheses were tested by linear mixed model. According to our results, both prevention methods (collar or surgery) inhibited crib-biting successfully though not totally. Regarding behaviour and heart rate variability, horses prevented from crib-biting (by collar or surgery) differed significantly from crib-biting and normal horses but not from each other. Normal horses were usually trying to reach the food-bucket while present and were standing still afterwards, whereas the other three groups had not really made efforts to reach the bucket, spent less time with resting, and performed or tried crib-biting. During the stress-test, normal and crib-biting horses had shown good stress-adaptation to the challenge since their HRV, after an initial increase, returned to the basal value by the end. On the contrary, HRV of the two prevented groups remained elevated and showed large oscillations throughout. They had not found a successful coping behaviour either. Our results suggest that since prevention may significantly increase distress, the treatment in itself, without changing the motivation of the horse to perform the replacement behaviour – it seems to be unsatisfactory and insufficient. After prevention the motivation of the horse to perform crib-biting should be addressed. In addition, considering that prevention by collar and surgery had not resulted in any significant behavioural or physiological differences, the superiority of the modified Forssell"s procedure might be questioned. However, the surgery might be recommended if treatment with collar is ineffective. |
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Krueger, K. (Ed.). (2008). Proceedings of the International Equine Science Meeting 2008. Wald: Xenophon Verlag.
Abstract: Target group: Biologists, Psychologists, Veterinarians and Professionals
Meeting target: Because the last international meeting on Equine Science took place a couple years ago, there is an urgent need for equine scientists to exchange scientific knowledge, coordinate research provide knowledge for practical application, and discus research results among themselves and with professionals who work with horses. Additionally, dialog concerning the coordination of the study “Equitation Science” in Europe is urgently needed. Coordination and cooperation shall arise from the meeting, enrich the research, and advance the application of scientific knowledge for the horses` welfare. |
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Verrill, S., & McDonnell, S. (2008). Equal Outcomes with and without Human-to-Horse Eye Contact When Catching Horses and Ponies in an Open Pasture. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 28(5), 309–312.
Abstract: Each of 104 horses and ponies was approached for catching at pasture by the same human handler in a standard manner, either maintaining human-to-animal eye contact (EC+; n = 51) or avoiding eye contact (EC-; n = 53). A subset of 74 of these subjects were reevaluated 3 weeks later under similar standard conditions except with the eye contact condition opposite to that used in the first round. Nonparametric statistical methods were used to evaluate between subjects (round 1, n = 104) and within subjects (rounds 1 and 2, n = 74) comparisons of successful or unsuccessful catching outcome with EC+ and EC-. Catching outcomes were similar with eye contact condition. Although this study represents a single handler at one study site, results suggest that human-to-horse eye contact may not be an important influence on catching pastured horses. Certainly, further work is needed to better understand the role of eye contact in horse handling.
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McGreevy, P. D., & McLean, A. N. (2007). Roles of learning theory and ethology in equitation. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 2(4), 108–118.
Abstract: By definition, ethology is primarily the scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being the study of animal behavior in the human domain. The terms equine ethology and ethological training are becoming commonplace in the equestrian domain, yet they seem to be used with a conspicuous lack of clarity and with no mention of learning theory. Most of what we do to train horses runs counter to their innate preferences. This article summarizes the ethological challenges encountered by working horses and considers the merits and limitations of ethological solutions. It also questions the use of terms such as “alpha” and “leader” and examines aspects of learning theory, equine cognition, and ethology as applied to horse training and clinical behavior modification. We propose 7 training principles that optimally account for the horse's ethological and learning abilities and maintain maximal responsivity in the trained horse. These principles can be summarized as: (1) use learning theory appropriately; (2) train easy-to-discriminate signals; (3) train and subsequently elicit responses singularly; (4) train only one response per signal; (5) train all responses to be initiated and subsequently completed within a consistent structure; (6) train persistence of current operantly conditioned responses; and (7) avoid and disassociate flight responses. Adherence to these principles and incorporating them into all horse training methodologies should accelerate training success, reduce behavioral wastage of horses, and improve safety for both humans and horses.
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Schultz, P. N., Remick-Barlow, G. A., & Robbins, L. (2007). Equine-assisted psychotherapy: a mental health promotion/intervention modality for children who have experienced intra-family violence. Health & Social Care in the Community, 15(3), 265–271.
Abstract: Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is a specialized form of psychotherapy using the horse as a therapeutic tool. This modality is designed to address self-esteem and personal confidence, communication and interpersonal effectiveness, trust, boundaries and limit-setting, and group cohesion. Substantial numbers of children witness family violence. There is evidence that violence between parents has adverse effects on the children in the family. These children are at greater risk of behavioural problems and mental health disorders, including anxiety, anger, depression and suicidal ideations, withdrawal, low self-esteem, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The purpose of the present pilot study was to test the efficacy of EAP in a cross-sectional group of children referred to a psychotherapist for various childhood behavioural and mental health issues over an 18-month period (June 2003–January 2005). Sixty-three children received a mean number of 19 EAP sessions. Scores on the Children's Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale were determined pre- and post-treatment. The mean (± standard deviation, SD) pretreatment score was 54.1 (SD 3.2) and post treatment mean score was 61.7 ± 5.0 (t = 9.06, d.f. = 96, P < 0.001). All children showed improvement in GAF scores, and there was a statistically significant correlation between the percentage improvement in the GAF scores and the number of sessions given (r = 0.73, P = 0.001). Univariate analysis showed that the greatest improvement in the GAF scores occurred in the youngest of the subjects. Children in the group who had a history of physical abuse and neglect had a statistically significant greater percentage improvement in GAF scores after treatment than those who did not have a history of abuse and neglect. This study has demonstrated a quick response to EAP, especially in younger children, but it remains to be determined what kind of long-term effects this type of intervention may provide.
Keywords: children; equine; intra-family violence; mental health; psychotherapy
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Grogan, E. H., & McDonnell, S. M. (2005). Mare and Foal Bonding and Problems. Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice, 4(3), 228–237.
Abstract: A number of specific behavioral responses have been identified in mares and foals as the presumed behavioral interactive sequences supporting bonding. With the exception of the severely physically compromised foal, most failures of the mare foal bond appear to result from inadequate behavior of the mare. Six distinct forms of maternal behavior problems include ambivalence of the mare toward her foal, fear of the foal, nursing only avoidance of the foal, extreme protectiveness of the foal that becomes problematic in domestic confinement, savage attack (true rejection), and stealing or adoption of an alien foal. Management of maternal behavior problem cases in which the pair cannot be salvaged include foster (or nurse mares) and hand-rearing methods. Also presented are current practical resources related to managing certain types of inadequate maternal behavior and for rearing the orphaned foal.
Keywords: Equine; bonding; behavior; mare; neonatal; foal; inadequate maternal behavior; orphan foal; nurse or foster mare
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McLean, A. N. (2004). Short-term spatial memory in the domestic horse. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 85(1-2), 93–105.
Abstract: This study investigates the ability of horses to recall a feeding event in a two-point choice apparatus. Twelve horses were individually tested whereby they were maintained immobile in a test arena and visually and aurally experienced the delivery of food into one of two feed goals. The horses were then released to make their choice in two experimental contexts: immediate release after experiencing the delivery of food, and release 10 s after food delivery. Each horse performed 40 immediate-release (IR) trials, followed by forty 10-s release trials over a 3-day period. In addition, the same horses were tested 3 months later in the spring with the same number and sequence of trials. Results were analysed by log-linear analysis of frequencies. Results showed that while horses were able to achieve the correct feed goal choice in the immediate-release trials, they were unsuccessful with the 10-s release trials. This suggests that there are limitations in recall abilities in horses, in that they may not possess a prospective type of memory. There are welfare and training implications in these findings concerning the effects of overestimating the mental abilities of horses during training and the effects of delays in reinforcements.
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Williams, J. L., Friend, T. H., Nevill, C. H., & Archer, G. (2004). The efficacy of a secondary reinforcer (clicker) during acquisition and extinction of an operant task in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 88(3-4), 331–341.
Abstract: “Clicker training” is a popularly promoted training method based on operant conditioning with the use of a secondary reinforcer (the clicker). While this method draws from theories of learning and is used widely, there has been little scientific investigation of its efficacy. We used 60 horses, Equus callabus, and assigned each horse to one of six reinforcement protocols. The reinforcement protocols involved combinations of reinforcers administered (primary versus secondary plus primary), schedule of reinforcement (continuous versus variable ratio), and reinforcers applied during extinction (none or secondary). There were no differences (P>=0.11) between horses which received a secondary reinforcer (click) followed by the primary reinforcer (food) and those which received only the primary reinforcer (food) in the number of trials required to train the horses to touch their noses to a plastic cone (operant response). There also were no differences (P>=0.12) between horses which received the secondary reinforcer plus primary reinforcer and those which received only the primary reinforcer in regards to the number of trials to extinction. We conclude that there is no difference in the amount of training required to learn the operant task or in the task's resistance to extinction between horses that received a secondary reinforcer followed by a primary reinforcer versus horses which received only a primary reinforcer.
Keywords: Equine; Horse; Clicker training; Operant conditioning; Secondary reinforcers
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Passler, S., & Pfeffer, M. (2003). Detection of antibodies to alphaviruses and discrimination between antibodies to eastern and western equine encephalitis viruses in rabbit sera using a recombinant antigen and virus-specific monoclonal antibodies. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health, 50(6), 265–269.
Abstract: Three arthropod-borne alphaviruses, western equine encephalitis viruses (WEEV), eastern equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV) and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses are the aetiological agents of a sometimes severe encephalomyelitis in equines and humans in the New World. With regard to the different ecology and epidemiology of these viruses, a method applied in serological screening should be able to distinguish between them as well as other related members of the genus Alphavirus in the American continent. However, this has been hampered in the past by (a) the close antigenic relationship between alphaviruses in traditional serological assays, especially in the routinely used haemagglutination-inhibition, and (b) the need of biosafety level 3 facilities to grow the viral antigens. An epitope blocking assay using an EEEV glycoprotein E1-expressing recombinant Sindbis virus and virus-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) binding to the E1 of EEEV (strain NJ/60) and the E1 of Sindbis virus was established using automated flow cytometry. The test was evaluated using sera of infected and vaccinated rabbits. A cut-off value of 30% inhibition for antigenic complex-specific seroconversion was found to be sufficient for the detection of the respective infection. By using three different mAbs in parallel, we were able to detect alphavirus genus-, EEEV- and WEEV-complex-specific serum antibodies. As this test is based on the inhibition of binding of virus-specific mAbs, sera of every origin other than mouse can be tested. Thus, this assay may prove useful in the serological screening of a variety of animal species during an outbreak investigation.
Keywords: Animals; Antibodies, Monoclonal/*immunology; Antibodies, Viral/*analysis/blood; DNA Primers; Encephalitis Virus, Eastern Equine/genetics/*immunology; Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine/genetics/*immunology; Encephalomyelitis, Equine/*diagnosis/*virology; Epitopes; Fluorescent Antibody Technique/*veterinary; Horses; Rabbits; Recombination, Genetic; Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/veterinary
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Nicol, C. J. (2002). Equine learning: progress and suggestions for future research. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 78(2-4), 193–208.
Abstract: Horses are well able to form classical and instrumental associations and so the focus of much recent research has been on the stimulus control of instrumental learning. Horses appear to discriminate using spatial cues more easily than other stimulus features, as indicated both by the speed of initial task acquisition and by the extent to which acquired discriminations can be reversed. Phenomena associated with discrimination learning in laboratory animals, including generalisation and peak shift, have been demonstrated in horses. However, the ability of horses to classify stimuli into categories is more controversial. Although there is some evidence that horses may be able to form categories based on similarities in the physical appearance of different stimuli, there is currently no evidence that they are able to develop abstract concepts. Their performance on social learning tasks has also been poor. Few correlations are observed between the learning ability of individual horses on different tasks, suggesting that it may not be possible to classify individual horses as `good' or `poor' learners. Better learning performance by horses that are naturally calm is probably due to reduced interference in the learning process. Correct handling procedures can lower reactivity levels in horses, and may facilitate learning in some circumstances. Future research on equine learning needs to take into account the complex nature of equine social interaction. Studies on the effects of stress on learning, and on social and spatial cognition, are also particularly needed.
Keywords: Learning; Horse; Equine; Discrimination; Training
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