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Weishaupt, M. A., Wiestner, T., von Peinen, K., Waldern, N., Roepstorff, L., van Weeren, R., et al. (2006). Effect of head and neck position on vertical ground reaction forces and interlimb coordination in the dressage horse ridden at walk and trot on a treadmill. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 387–392.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Little is known in quantitative terms about the influence of different head-neck positions (HNPs) on the loading pattern of the locomotor apparatus. Therefore it is difficult to predict whether a specific riding technique is beneficial for the horse or if it may increase the risk for injury. OBJECTIVE: To improve the understanding of forelimb-hindlimb balance and its underlying temporal changes in relation to different head and neck positions. METHODS: Vertical ground reaction force and time parameters of each limb were measured in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden at walk and trot on an instrumented treadmill in 6 predetermined HNPs: HNP1 – free, unrestrained with loose reins; HNP2 – neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 – neck raised, bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 – neck lowered and flexed, bridge of the nose considerably behind the vertical; HNP5 – neck extremely elevated and bridge of the nose considerably in front of the vertical; HNP6 – neck and head extended forward and downward. Positions were judged by a qualified dressage judge. HNPs were assessed by comparing the data to a velocity-matched reference HNP (HNP2). Differences were tested using paired t test or Wilcoxon signed rank test (P<0.05). RESULTS: At the walk, stride duration and overreach distance increased in HNP1, but decreased in HNP3 and HNP5. Stride impulse was shifted to the forehand in HNP1 and HNP6, but shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. At the trot, stride duration increased in HNP4 and HNP5. Overreach distance was shorter in HNP4. Stride impulse shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. In HNP1 peak forces decreased in the forelimbs; in HNP5 peak forces increased in fore- and hindlimbs. CONCLUSIONS: HNP5 had the biggest impact on limb timing and load distribution and behaved inversely to HNP1 and HNP6. Shortening of forelimb stance duration in HNP5 increased peak forces although the percentage of stride impulse carried by the forelimbs decreased. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: An extremely high HNP affects functionality much more than an extremely low neck.
Keywords: Animals; Biomechanics; Exercise Test/instrumentation/methods/*veterinary; Forelimb/physiology; Gait; Head/physiology; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Male; Neck/physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/methods/*physiology; Posture; Statistics, Nonparametric; Walking/*physiology
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Branson, N. J., & Rogers, L. J. (2006). Relationship between paw preference strength and noise phobia in Canis familiaris. J. Comp. Psychol., 120(3), 176–183.
Abstract: The authors investigated the relationship between degree of lateralization and noise phobia in 48 domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) by scoring paw preference to hold a food object and relating it to reactivity to the sounds of thunderstorms and fireworks, measured by playback and a questionnaire. The dogs without a significant paw preference were significantly more reactive to the sounds than the dogs with either a left-paw or right-paw preference. Intense reactivity, therefore, is associated with a weaker strength of cerebral lateralization. The authors note the similarity between their finding and the weaker hand preferences shown in humans suffering extreme levels of anxiety and suggest neural mechanisms that may be involved. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Keywords: noise phobia; lateralization; paw preference; dog; fear
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Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic Helping in Human Infants and Young Chimpanzees. Science, 311(5765), 1301–1303.
Abstract: Human beings routinely help others to achieve their goals, even when the helper receives no immediate benefit and the person helped is a stranger. Such altruistic behaviors (toward non-kin) are extremely rare evolutionarily, with some theorists even proposing that they are uniquely human. Here we show that human children as young as 18 months of age (prelinguistic or just-linguistic) quite readily help others to achieve their goals in a variety of different situations. This requires both an understanding of others' goals and an altruistic motivation to help. In addition, we demonstrate similar though less robust skills and motivations in three young chimpanzees.
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Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M., Blok, M. B., Begeman, L., Kamphuis, M. C. D., Lameris, M. C., Spierenburg, A. J., et al. (2006). Workload and stress in horses: comparison in horses ridden deep and round ('rollkur') with a draw rein and horses ridden in a natural frame with only light rein contact. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd, 131(5), 152–157.
Abstract: 'Rollkur' or 'overbending' is the low and deep riding of a dressage horse during training or warming up. Lately, this technique has been criticized, and not necessarily objectively, on welfare grounds. To be able to evaluate these criticisms, more needs to be known about the workload and stress of horses being ridden 'rollkur'. The aim of the present study was to compare the workload of eight riding-school horses when being ridden deep and round with a draw rein ('rollkur') and when being ridden in a natural frame with only light rein contact ('free'). Workload (as measured by heart rate and blood lactate concentration) was slightly higher when horses were ridden 'rollkur' than when they were ridden 'free'. There were no differences in packed cell volume, or glucose and cortisol concentrations. No signs of uneasiness or stress could be determined when the horses were ridden 'rollkur'. Subjectively, all horses improved their way of moving during 'rollkur' and were more responsive to their rider.
Keywords: Animal Husbandry/methods; Animals; Biomechanics; Blood Glucose/analysis; Female; Heart Rate/physiology; Hematocrit/veterinary; Horses/blood/*physiology; Hydrocortisone/blood; Lactic Acid/blood; Physical Conditioning, Animal/adverse effects/*physiology; Stress, Physiological/blood/etiology/veterinary
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Leiner, L. (2006). Vergleich verschiedener Methoden zur Angstextinktion bei Pferden. Diploma thesis, , .
Abstract: Pferde sind Fluchttiere. Ihr Fluchtinstinkt bewirkt, dass sie sich leicht erschrecken und auch in
diversen Situationen mit Flucht reagieren. Diese Tatsache ist den meisten Reitern bekannt, nur ist es für den Menschen teilweise schwer, mit dieser Eigenschaft auszukommen und sie zu verstehen oder gar nachzuvollziehen. So kommt es häufig zu Unfällen, die aus der Angst der Pferde resultieren, jedoch vermeidbar gewesen wären, hätte man ankündigende Signale früher erkannt. Des Weiteren kann die Angst eines Pferdes auch durch eine (Ver-) Weigerung, bestimmte Dinge zu tun, sichtbar werden. Diese Weigerung wird in der Reiterei gerne als „Bockigkeit“ und „Ungehorsam“ des Pferdes interpretiert und führt nicht selten zu einer Bestrafung. Insgesamt kann man sagen, dass angstauslösende Reize und die Reaktionen des Pferdes darauf oft falsch eingeschätzt oder falsch interpretiert werden und in der Folge auch falsch damit umgegangen wird. Ein Grund dafür ist sicher das fehlende Wissen über das Verhalten des Pferdes. Mit der vorliegenden Diplomarbeit soll ein Beitrag geleistet werden, das Pferd in seinem Angstverhalten besser zu verstehen. Ziel der Arbeit war es, das Verhalten des Pferdes bei verschiedenen Intensitäten von Angst zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren wurden Methoden untersucht, mit denen man die Angst von Pferden vor bestimmten Reizen und Situationen potentiell lindern kann, was letztendlich auch der Unfallvorbeugung dient. Die vorliegende Diplomarbeit wurde am Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach durchgeführt; 24 Junghengste standen hierfür zur Verfügung. Darunter waren 18 Deutsche Warmblüter, 3 Vollblutaraber und 3 Schwarzwälder Füchse (Kaltblüter), somit war auch ein Rassenvergleich möglich. In einem ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde untersucht, wie sich Angst bei Pferden äußert. Hierfür wurde ausgenutzt, dass Pferde ganz generell vor unbekannten, neuen Gegenständen Angst haben (= Neophobie). Zur Angstauslösung dienten als Konfrontationsgegenstände ein Sonnenschirm und eine Plastikplane. Beide Gegenstände waren für die Testpferde unbekannt. Das Verhalten sowie die Herzrate der Tiere wurden während aller Versuche beobachtet und quantifiziert. Nacheiner ersten Konfrontation wurden die Pferde an die Objekte gewöhnt (Extinktionstraining = Angstlöschung) und beobachtet welche Verhaltensymptome sich während dieser Gewöhnung (= Verlust der Neophobie) verändern. Die Hypothese war, dass tatsächliche Angstsymptome während der Gewöhnung immer seltener zu beobachten sind. Zusammenfassung III Als Verhaltensweisen für Angst konnten Ausweichbewegungen und Flucht, Lautäußerungen (Prusten und Schnauben), das Anspannen der Halsmuskulatur sowie das Vordrücken der Oberlippe identifiziert werden. Darüber hinaus wurde gezeigt, dass Abstufungen im Angstverhalten möglich sind: Bei sehr hohem Angstlevel sind Fluchtreaktionen zu beobachten. Bei mittlerem Angstlevel treten Ausweichbewegungen im Schritt und Lautäußerungen (Prusten und Schnauben) auf, bei geringem Angstlevel wird die Halsmuskulatur angespannt und die Oberlippe vorgedrückt. Im Zweiten Teil der Arbeit sollten verschiedene Methoden zur Angst-Extinktionauf ihre Wirksamkeit hin untersucht werden. Verwendet wurde in verschiedenen Testgruppen die Methode der Desensibilisierung (d.h. leichte, schrittweise stärker werdende Exposition gegenüber dem angstauslösenden Reiz), die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung (positive Verstärkung) durch Streicheln bzw. Reiben des Halses und die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung durch Futterbelohnung. Als Kontrollgruppe dienten Pferde, die ohne eine Konfrontation mit dem angstauslösenden Reiz nur über den Versuchplatz geführt wurden. Während des Extinktionstrainings konnte beobachtet werden, dass die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung zu einer schnelleren Extinktion führt als ohne Gegenkonditionierung. Allerdings zeigte ein Vergleich mit der Kontrollgruppe, die das Extinktionstraining nicht erfahren hatte, den gleichen Verlust an Angstverhalten wie die Gruppen mit Extinktionstraining. Dieses Ergebnis wurde so interpretiert, dass die wiederholte Exposition gegenüber angstauslösenden Reizen bei den durchgeführten Verhaltenstests zwar eine Rolle spielt, doch dass auch allein die Beschäftigung mit den Tieren zu einem Verlust von Angstverhalten führt (wahrscheinlich auch aufgrund eines wachsenden Vertrauens zur Führperson, die über das komplette Experiment hin die Gleiche blieb). |
Fagot, J., & Cook, R. G. (2006). Evidence for large long-term memory capacities in baboons and pigeons and its implications for learning and the evolution of cognition. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103. |
Lim, M. M., & Young, L. J. (2006). Neuropeptidergic regulation of affiliative behavior and social bonding in animals. Hormon. Behav., 50(4), 506–517.
Abstract: Social relationships are essential for maintaining human mental health, yet little is known about the brain mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of social bonds. Animal models are powerful tools for investigating the neurobiological mechanisms regulating the cognitive processes leading to the development of social relationships and for potentially extending our understanding of the human condition. In this review, we discuss the roles of the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin in the regulation of social bonding as well as related social behaviors which culminate in the formation of social relationships in animal models. The formation of social bonds is a hierarchical process involving social motivation and approach, the processing of social stimuli and formation of social memories, and the social attachment itself. Oxytocin and vasopressin have been implicated in each of these processes. Specifically, these peptides facilitate social affiliation and parental nurturing behavior, are essential for social recognition in rodents, and are involved in the formation of selective mother-infant bonds in sheep and pair bonds in monogamous voles. The convergence of evidence from these animal studies makes oxytocin and vasopressin attractive candidates for the neural modulation of human social relationships as well as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of psychiatric disorders associated with disruptions in social behavior, including autism.
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Berger, K. M. (2006). Carnivore-Livestock conflicts: effects of subsidized predator control and economic correlates on the sheep industry. Conserv Biol, 20. |
Nowak, S., Jedrzejewski, W., Schmidt, K., Theuerkauf, J., Myslajek, R. W., & Jedrzejewska, B. (2006). Howling activity of free-ranging wolves (Canis lupus) in the Bialowieza Primeval Forest and the Western Beskidy Mountains (Poland). J Ethol, 25. |
Murphy, J., & Arkins, S. (2006). Laterality and visuo-spatial ability in the equine: Functional measures of sport horse selection? BSAP Occasional Publication, 35, 159–170.
Abstract: Laterality in any organism or species can be manifest as morphological, sensory and functional degrees of asymmetry such as hemispheric dominance, handedness or sidedness and other motor functional behaviours and as such is equally important in equitation. The influence of the horses' sex on both the direction and the degree of the laterality was explored within and between 4 experimental procedures in the 1st study. The findings showed that the direction, but not the degree of idiosyncratic motor preference in the horses was strongly sex-related. Male horses exhibited significantly more left lateralized responses and female horses exhibited significantly more right lateralized responses. Visuo-spatial ability is also likely to be important in the performance horse. In many species, moderate to large differences in visuo-spatial ability have been reported between the sexes, with superior visuo-spatial ability being reported in males of all species investigated to date. As no known studies had addressed visuo-spatial ability in the equine, the objective of the 2nd study, was to determine if visuo-spatial ability differed between male and female horses. The results produced the first behavioural demonstration of superior visuo-spatial ability in male horses, similar to that reported in other species. There is evidence to suggest that visuospatial ability and motor laterality are associated with cerebral hemispheric asymmetry and may be intrinsically linked. Brain development and laterality have also been associated with hair patterning, and, in a 3rd study we attempted to identify predictors of lateral bias in motor behaviour in horses. We investigated the relationship between the direction of facial hair whorl rotation and the incidence/direction of laterality in the horse. The findings suggest that direction of facial hair whorl rotation may be a useful indicator of lateralised motor behavioural preferences in the horse. We then attempted to establish if laterality was evident at birth in a 4th study, where we explored if neonatal foals exhibited lateralised patterns during and immediately post the birthing process that were correlated with their facial hair whorl patterns. The results showed a significant association between the sex of the foal and the choice of foreleg presented initially during 2nd stage parturition. Significantly more colt foals led with the left foreleg and significantly more filly foals led with the right foreleg than expected purely by random and the behaviour was correlated with facial hair whorl patterns. The findings also suggest that lateralisation in the horse is determined in utero as has also been shown in humans. Comparisons of wholly intact male and female horses are warranted as they might elucidate additional linkages between motor behaviour, visuo-spatial ability and brain organisation and development in the horse. Further research in this area could lead to more appropriate competition conditions (better fence design/construction on cross-country tracks) and so eliminate unnecessary levels of risk associated with many equestrian sports.
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