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Hinde, R. A. (1969). Analyzing the roles of the partners in a behavioral interaction--mother-infant relations in rhesus macaques. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 159(3), 651–667.
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de Waal, F. B., & Luttrell, L. M. (1986). The similarity principle underlying social bonding among female rhesus monkeys. Folia Primatol (Basel), 46(4), 215–234.
Abstract: Twenty adult female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were observed over a three-year period. They lived in a mixed captive group with kinship relations known for three generations. The study's aim was to test Seyfarth's [J. theor. Biol. 65: 671-698, 1977] model of rank-related grooming and to investigate two other possible determinants of social bonding, i.e. relative age and the group's stratification into two social classes. Data on affiliation, coalitions, and social competition were collected by means of both focal observation and instantaneous time sampling. Whereas certain elements of the existing model were confirmed, its explanatory principles were not. Social competition did not result in more contact among close-ranking females (the opposite effect was found), and the relation between affiliative behavior and coalitions was more complex than predicted. Based on multivariate analyses and a comparison of theoretical models, we propose a simpler, more encompassing principle underlying interfemale attraction. According to this 'similarity principle', rhesus females establish bonds with females whom they most resemble. The similarity may concern genetical and social background, age, hierarchical position and social class. Effects of these four factors were independently demonstrated. The most successful model assumed that similarity factors influence female bonding in a cumulative fashion.
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Kozarovitskii, L. B. (1988). [Further comment on the distinction between humans and animals]. Nauchnye Doki Vyss Shkoly Biol Nauki, (3), 42–45.
Abstract: The problem of mind is considered in the aspect of natural scientific and philosophical problem of distinction between human and animal. The widespread confusion of the terms “rudiments”, “elements” of specifically human properties in animals and “biological prerequisites” of these properties are critically analysed. The idea is formulated according to which only in the process of anthropogenesis the rudiments of new social property--mind, conscience--could appear in the developing human beings.
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Williams, D. O., Boatwright, R. B., Rugh, K. S., Garner, H. E., & Griggs, D. M. J. (1991). Myocardial blood flow, metabolism, and function with repeated brief coronary occlusions in conscious ponies. Am J Physiol, 260(1 Pt 2), H100–9.
Abstract: Studies were performed in the conscious pony instrumented with a Doppler flow probe and hydraulic occluder on the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD), sonomicrometry crystals and intraventricular micromanometer in the left ventricle, and catheters in the left atrium and anterior interventricular vein. Two-minute LAD occlusions were performed every 30 min continuously or during working hours. Data on release of catabolites (potassium, hydrogen ions, and lactate) and norepinephrine from the initially dysfunctional region were obtained periodically during a regimen of 445 +/- 56 occlusions in six animals. Regional myocardial blood flow was measured (microsphere method) before and after an occlusion regimen in four animals. Marked release of catabolites and norepinephrine from the initially dysfunctional region was noted in association with early occlusions when myocardial segment function was severely reduced. With further occlusions, release of these substances decreased while segment function improved. Blood flow was markedly decreased in the initially dysfunctional region during an early occlusion but was at the control level during a later occlusion. Although the metabolic findings are consistent with protection due to “ischemic preconditioning” and no increase in collateral perfusion, the inverse relationship noted between catabolite release and segment function is best explained by flow-dependent mechanisms. These results, together with the myocardial blood flow data, serve to validate a previous assumption that protection against regional myocardial dysfunction under these conditions is due to increased collateral perfusion.
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Grubb, T. L., Foreman, J. H., Benson, G. J., Thurmon, J. C., Tranquilli, W. J., Constable, P. D., et al. (1996). Hemodynamic effects of calcium gluconate administered to conscious horses. J Vet Intern Med, 10(6), 401–404.
Abstract: Calcium gluconate was administered to conscious horses at 3 different rates (0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg/kg/min for 15 minutes each). Serum calcium concentrations and parameters of cardiovascular function were evaluated. All 3 calcium administration rates caused marked increases in both ionized and total calcium concentrations, cardiac index, stroke index, and cardiac contractility (dP/dtmax). Mean arterial pressure and right atrial pressure were unchanged; heart rate decreased markedly during calcium administration. Ionized calcium concentration remained between 54% and 57% of total calcium concentration throughout the study. We conclude that calcium gluconate can safely be administered to conscious horses at 0.1 to 0.4 mg/kg/min and that administration will result in improved cardiac function.
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Joffe, T. H., & Dunbar, R. I. (1997). Visual and socio-cognitive information processing in primate brain evolution. Proc Biol Sci, 264(1386), 1303–1307.
Abstract: Social group size has been shown to correlate with neocortex size in primates. Here we use comparative analyses to show that social group size is independently correlated with the size of non-V1 neocortical areas, but not with other more proximate components of the visual system or with brain systems associated with emotional cueing (e.g. the amygdala). We argue that visual brain components serve as a social information 'input device' for socio-visual stimuli such as facial expressions, bodily gestures and visual status markers, while the non-visual neocortex serves as a 'processing device' whereby these social cues are encoded, interpreted and associated with stored information. However, the second appears to have greater overall importance because the size of the V1 visual area appears to reach an asymptotic size beyond which visual acuity and pattern recognition may not improve significantly. This is especially true of the great ape clade (including humans), that is known to use more sophisticated social cognitive strategies.
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Brannon, E. M., & Terrace, H. S. (1998). Ordering of the numerosities 1 to 9 by monkeys. Science, 282(5389), 746–749.
Abstract: A fundamental question in cognitive science is whether animals can represent numerosity (a property of a stimulus that is defined by the number of discriminable elements it contains) and use numerical representations computationally. Here, it was shown that rhesus monkeys represent the numerosity of visual stimuli and detect their ordinal disparity. Two monkeys were first trained to respond to exemplars of the numerosities 1 to 4 in an ascending numerical order (1 --> 2 --> 3 --> 4). As a control for non-numerical cues, exemplars were varied with respect to size, shape, and color. The monkeys were later tested, without reward, on their ability to order stimulus pairs composed of the novel numerosities 5 to 9. Both monkeys responded in an ascending order to the novel numerosities. These results show that rhesus monkeys represent the numerosities 1 to 9 on an ordinal scale.
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Pennisi, E. (1999). Are out primate cousins 'conscious'? (Vol. 284).
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Devienne, M. F., & Guezennec, C. Y. (2000). Energy expenditure of horse riding. Eur J Appl Physiol, 82(5-6), 499–503.
Abstract: Oxygen consumption (VO2), ventilation (VE) and heart rate (HR) were studied in five recreational riders with a portable oxygen analyser (K2 Cosmed, Rome) telemetric system, during two different experimental riding sessions. The first one was a dressage session in which the rider successively rode four different horses at a walk, trot and canter. The second one was a jumping training session. Each rider rode two horses, one known and one unknown. The physiological parameters were measured during warm up at a canter in suspension and when jumping an isolated obstacle at a trot and canter. This session was concluded by a jumping course with 12 obstacles. The data show a progressive increase in VO2 during the dressage session from a mean value of 0.70 (0.18) l x min(-1) [mean (SD)] at a walk, to 1.47 (0.28) l x min(-1) at a trot, and 1.9 (0.3) l x min(-1) at a canter. During the jumping session, rider VO2 was 2 (0.33) l x min(-1) with a mean HR of 155 beats x min(-1) during canter in suspension, obstacle trot and obstacle canter. The jumping course significantly enhanced VO2 and HR up to mean values of 2.40 (0.35) l x min(-1) and 176 beats x min(-1), respectively. The comparison among horses and riders during the dressage session shows differences in energy expenditure according to the horse for the same rider and between riders. During the jumping session, there was no statistical difference between riders riding known and unknown horses. In conclusion these data confirm that riding induces a significant increase in energy expenditure. During jumping, a mean value of 75% VO2max was reached. Therefore, a good aerobic capacity seems to be a factor determining riding performance in competitions. Regular riding practice and additional physical training are recommended to enhance the physical fitness of competitive riders.
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Reichmuth Kastak, C., & Schusterman, R. J. (2002). Long-term memory for concepts in a California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus). Anim. Cogn., 5(4), 225–232.
Abstract: An adult California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus) with extensive experience in performing discrimination learning tasks was tested to evaluate her long-term memory for two previously learned concepts. An associative concept, that of equivalence classification, was retested after a retention interval of approximately 1 year. The sea lion had originally shown emergent equivalence classification with nonsimilarity-based classes of stimuli in a simple discrimination repeated-reversal procedure as well as in a matching-to-sample procedure. The 1-year memory test revealed no decrement in classification performance in either procedure. A relational concept, that of generalized identity matching, was retested after approximately 10 years. The sea lion had originally received trial-and-error exemplar training with identity matching-to-sample problems prior to transferring the concept to novel stimulus configurations. In the 10-year memory test, the sea lion immediately and reliably applied the previously established identity concept to familiar and novel sets of matching problems. These are the first reports of long-term conceptual memory in a nonprimate species. The experimental findings are consistent with a variety of observations of sea lions in natural settings, which indicate that natal sites, feeding areas, and individuals may be remembered over long periods of time.
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