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Vidament, M.; Yvon. J.-M.; Roche, H.; Le Bon, H.; Menard, C.; Delfosse, A.; Dubois, C.; Sabot, J.; Lansade, L. |
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Title |
Temperament of stallions: relation with age, breed and level of riders |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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temperament, age, breed, fear, gregarity |
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Temperament is an important factor when working with horses. Behavioral tests have been developed to measure certain dimensions in horses. Relations between temperament and ability to riding activity have been highlighted (Lansade 2008a). The aims of this study were 1) to evaluate the effect of age on temperament, 2) to verify that temperament are related to breeds 3) to check if the ease to be ridden is in relation with temperament, on a first set of data. Five dimensions of temperament have been measured in 98 field stallions (Table 1). They were tested as described by Lansade (2008 a,b): fearfulness/curiosity (tests: crossing a novel aera, suddenly opening an umbrella, novel object), gregariousness (test: isolation), locomotor activity (during the other tests), reactivity/curiosity to a non familiar human (tests: passive and active human), tactile (Von Frey filament) and auditory sensitivities. Table 1: Number of stallions according to breed (or group of breeds) and age. Breeds or groups of breeds Young (<13 years) Old (>=13 <20 years) Merens 1 15 10 Leasure horse breeds 2 13 10 Jumping pony breeds 3 / 20 Jumping horse breeds4 9 10 Arabians / 11 Total 37 61 (1) Merens : french mountain horse breed (2) Appaloosa, Barbe, Lusitanian, Polish, Paint (3) French Saddle Pony, Connemara, New Forest, Welsh (4) French Saddle Horse, Anglo-Arab, KWPN, Foreign breeds Effect of age. Due to imbalanced data, only stallions from 3 breed groups were compared (29 young ones selected at random and 30 old ones). Young stallions presented a higher emotivity (more elevated distance/intensity of the flight after umbrella opening (P=0.001)) and curiosity (more sniffings/nibblings the passive human (P=0.04) and the novel object (P<0.0001)) compared to old ones. Relation with breed groups. In young stallions, differences were noted : in the number of trots during social isolation (P=0.001) and in the tactile sensitivity (P=0.005). Merens had smaller values than Jumping horses for these 2 variables. In older stallions, differences were also noted: in the number of sniffings/nibblings the novel object (P=0.04), in the manner to cross the novel aera (P=0.03), in the distance and intensity of the flight after umbrella opening (P=0.04), in the number of trots during isolation (P=0.02) and in the tactile sensitivity (P=0.03). Merens had lower reactivity compared: 1) to Arabians (for novel aera) and 2) compared to Jumping ponies and Jumping horses (for isolation and tactile sensitivity). Minimal level of rider. Stallions of all ages and breeds were divided into 3 groups according to the level of riders able to ride them safely, according to a questionnaire: beginners, intermediate level and pre-national competition level. Stallions adapted to beginners showed lower values in the number of trots during isolation (P=0.02) and in the tactile sensitivity (P=0.03) than stallions rode by pre-competition level riders. Conclusion : The intensity of fear reactions to suddenness decreased with age. Differences between breeds and eases of use have been related to temperament measurements. |
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Corporate Author |
Vidament, M. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
Place of Publication |
Wald |
Editor |
Krueger, K. |
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978-3-9808134-26 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5525 |
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Ramnath, D.; Ralston, S.; Anderson, H. |
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Title |
Trainability and reactivity of Mustang Horses (Equus Equus) fed Forage-Based Total Mixed (TMR) rations with or without added grain |
Type |
Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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The relationship between ration and behavior in horses has not been extensively studied, though it is widely thought that the type of feed fed can influence how a horse behaves. For example rations high in sugar and starch have been documented to increase young horses' reactivity to novel stimuli. Since the temperament of a horse has been linked to the ease with which it can be trained, documenting if a horse’s behavior can be altered by its ration would be of interest to the equine industry. We hypothesized that increasing the starch intake of young mustangs by addition of corn or oats to a forage-based total mixed ration (TMR) would alter their reactivity to stimuli and responsiveness to learned commands. To test this hypothesis 8 recently tamed mustangs (4 geldings and 4 fillies, one and two years of age) were used. The mustangs were divided into two groups based on age, sex and temperament. In a series of three experiments they were fed TMR cubes with or without 10% added corn free choice (Exp. 1, Fall, 2010), or a basal ration of TMR cubes free choice with morning meals of 1kg TMR cubes versus an equicaloric amount of corn (exp. 2, Spring, 2011) or oats (Exp. 3, Spring 2011) in a simple crossover design with 2 to 2.5 week adaptation periods for each trial. The horses’ trainability and reactivity to stimuli were evaluated before the treatments were initiated and after each adaptation period 60 to 90 minutes after the morning meals were fed. In the tests the horses were asked to perform a standardized series of commands (ie: walk on, turn, stop and stand still, back up), and were then confronted with a novel stimulus, which varied with each trial. A single handler (SLR) led each horse through the tests, which was then repeated on the next day using a student handler instead. Treatments were then switched and the horses were re-tested, so that each horse was tested on each feed type in all 3 experiments. Each horse’s performance was scored by 2 judges, who were both professional trainers who had been assigned 4 horses to train throughout the study. These judges scored the horses' performances as the tests were done. Each test was videotaped for further evaluation by a third judge (D. Ramnath) who was not familiar with the horses and who was blind to the ration being fed. The performances were scored using a numerical scale of 0-5, with 0=total noncompliance and 5=perfect execution of the tasks asked of the horse. There were no differences (p>0.1) in responses to commands or reactivity to stimuli between rations in any of the trials or with respect to which trainer had trained the horse. There were, however, differences (P<0.05) among horses, handlers and judges with respect to the scores. It appears that addition of a moderate amount of starchy feed to a horse's ration has less influence on the horse's trainability and reactivity than the animal's natural temperament and handler ability. KW - |
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Ralston, S. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
Place of Publication |
Wald |
Editor |
Krueger, K. |
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978-3-9808134-26 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5533 |
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Author |
Sigurjonsdottir, H. |
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Title |
How does group stability and composition affect interactions in horse groups? |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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in press |
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Results from studies on the social behaviour of the Icelandic horse kept in different types of groups will be presented. Most groups were studied for more than 75 hours. The groups vary in composition and in stability. Some groups include stallions (6 groups) while others breeding mares and foals (1), geldings, mares, sub-adults and foals (3), geldings, sub-adults and mares (2), geldings and mares (4), one-sex 1year olds (3) and sub-adults (1). In some of the groups the residency of individual horses was similar (stable groups) while in others the composition changed frequently or unfamiliar horses were all put together at the same time. The results show that both negative and positive interactions are more frequent in unstable groups. Also, interesting differences emerged when different group types were compared. The results are important for management and will be discussed in that context. KW - |
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Corporate Author |
Sigurjonsdottir, H. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
Place of Publication |
Wald |
Editor |
Krueger, K. |
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978-3-9808134-26 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5535 |
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Author |
Merkies, K.; Isensee, A.; MacGregor, H.; Koenig von Borstel, U.; Tucker, A.; Carson. J.; Bergeron, R. |
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Title |
Influence of psychological and physiological arousal in humans on horse heart rate and behaviour |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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in press |
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Keywords |
horse-human interaction, heart rate, behaviour, human nervousness |
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The interaction of horses with humans is a dynamic state, but it is not clearly understood how horses perceive humans. Nervousness is transmissible from humans to horses indicated by increased horse heart rate (HR), however no studies have investigated whether horses can differentiate between humans who are physiologicallystressed (eg. after exercising) as opposed to psychologically-stressed (eg. feeling nervous/afraid). Horses (N=10) were randomly subjected to each of four treatments: 1) no human [control], 2) a calm human comfortable around horses [CALM; N=2 humans], 3) a physically-stressed human [PHYS; human exercised to reach 70% of maximum HR; N=2 humans], and 4) a psychologically-stressed human [PSYCH; human who was nervous around horses; N=14 humans]. Humans ranked themselves on a scale of 1-10 for their nervousness around horses. Both humans and horses were equipped with a HR monitor. Behavioural observations of the horses [gait, head position relative to the withers, distance from human, orientation toward human] were recorded live. Horses were allowed to wander loose in a round pen for 5 minutes of baseline recordings, at which time the human subject entered the round pen, stood in the centre and placed a blindfold over his/her eyes. The human remained in the centre of the round pen for an additional 5 minutes. Horse HR during control did not differ from when the human was present in the CALM and PSYCH treatment, and was lower during the PHYS treatment (51a vs 54a vs 55a vs 45b bpm for control, CALM, PSYCH and PHYS respectively; a,b differ p<0.0001). Over the 5 minute test period, horse HR decreased in PHYS and PSYCH (p<0.01) whereas it increased in CALM (p<0.0001). Horse HR decreased with increasing human rank of nervousness around horses (p=0.0156), and horses stood nearer to the human when they faced the human (p<0.0001) regardless of treatment. Horses moved at a faster gait in the control treatment, and their gait was slowest in the PSYCH treatment (p<0.0001), and the horse’s head position was lower in the PHYS and PSYCH treatments compared to CALM or baseline (p< 0.0001). A lower horse head position was positively correlated to a lower horse HR (p<0.0001) and negatively correlated to horse age (p<0.0001). Human HR was affected by treatment, with PHYS having the highest HR (p<0.0001). Human HR increased when the horse was facing away from the human, even though the human was blindfolded (p=0.0395). Overall, horses appear to be influenced by the physiological and psychological state of a human without any direct contact. Horses’ posture does reflect their physiological state. Understanding how horses react to human physiological and psychological states is especially important in equine-assisted activities, where the response of the horse has specific implications for the human participant. |
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Corporate Author |
Isensee, A. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
Place of Publication |
Wald |
Editor |
Krueger, K. |
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978-3-9808134-26 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5545 |
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Author |
Zeitler-Feicht, M.H.; Streit, S. |
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Title |
Checkpunkte für eine tiergerechte Fütterung von Pferden an Abrufautomaten |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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in press |
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In der Offenstallhaltung von Pferden wird für die individuelle Fütterung der Fressstand, der eine art-typische synchrone Nahrungsaufnahme erlaubt, empfohlen (BMELV 2009). Seit einigen Jahren kommen jedoch vermehrt Abrufstationen für Kraft- und Raufutter zum Einsatz. Diese ermöglichen nur ein asynchrones Fressen, was das Risiko für Auseinandersetzungen im Fressbereich erhöht.
In einer repräsentativen Studie an insgesamt 567 individuell unterschiedenen Pferden in 32 Offen-laufställen mit Abrufstationen und 10 Betrieben mit Fressständen wurden die Aufenthaltsdauer und Besuchshäufigkeit sowie das Droh- und Meideverhalten der Pferde im Fütterungsbereich und die Häu-figkeit von Blockaden erfasst, des Weiteren Herzfrequenz und Integumentverletzungen. Fazit war, dass es an den Abrufstationen doppelt so oft zu Auseinandersetzungen kam als an den Fressständen. Als Ursache hierfür konnte die starke Frequentierung der Automaten eruiert werden. Umso wichtiger ist somit die tiergerechte Ausführung der Abrufautomaten. In der Studie konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass Durchlaufstationen pferdegerechter sind als Rücklaufstationen. Als nicht tiergerecht wurden Stationen mit Strom führender Austreibehilfe.eingestuft. Die für das fressende Pferd als verhaltens-gerecht empfohlene Variante (Fressstand mit Eingangssperre und ohne Austreibehilfe) führte zu einer Erhöhung der Besuchshäufigkeit und Aufenthaltsdauer und somit auch zu einer erhöhten Anzahl an Drohgesten je Tier und Tag. Die Herzfrequenz lag im Wartebereich bei den meisten Pferden im physio-logischen Bereich (45,1 ± 12,42 Schläge/min), erhöhte sich jedoch in der Abrufstation um ca. 20 Schlä-ge/min. Einige Tiere zeigten möglicherweise stressbedingt auffallend hohe Herzfrequenzwerte ( 100 Schläge/min). Integumentverletzungen im Zusammenhang mit dem Fütterungssystem traten nicht auf. Das Flächengebot und die Konzeption der Offenstallanlage sowie das Management erwiesen sich als maßgebliche Einflussfaktoren auf alle überprüften Kriterien zur Tiergerechtheit.
Um die Anzahl an Auseinandersetzungen im Fütterungsbereich von Abrufstationen zu mindern wird eine Reduzierung der Fütterungshäufigkeit von üblicherweise bis zu 24 Mahlzeiten auf nur 10 Mahlzeiten empfohlen, gemäß dem natürlichen Fressrhythmus von Pferden. Unabhängig vom Fütterungssystem traten die wenigsten Auseinandersetzungen auf, wenn die Pferde täglich etwa 1,5 kg Heu pro 100 kg Körpermasse erhielten bei zusätzlicher ad Libitum Fütterung von Stroh.
Nach bisherigen Erkenntnissen ergeben sich nachfolgende Checkpoints für Abrufautomaten:
Checkpunkte für Abrufstationen
 Schutz des Pferdes durch Trennwände über die gesamte Körperlänge
 Trennwände mit Sichtkontakt zu den anderen Pferden
 Durchlaufstationen mit separatem Ein- und Ausgang
 Eingangssperre für eine stressfreie Futteraufnahme
 Ausgang mit Pendeltüre und Rücklaufsperre
 Ausgang in einen anderen Funktionsbereich
 Ausreichend Ausweichmöglichkeiten für rangniedere Tiere
 Räumliche Trennung von Kraftfutter- und Heuautomaten
 Maximal je 10 Kraft- und Grobfutterrationen je Tier und Tag
 ≥ 1,5 kg Heu bzw. Heulage pro 100 kg Körpermasse je Pferd und Tag
 Stroh zur freien Verfügung (Möglichkeit zum synchronen Fressen)
 Individuelles Anlernen der Pferde am Automaten erforderlich |
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Zeitler-Feicht, M.H. |
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Publisher |
Xenophon Publishing |
Place of Publication |
Wald |
Editor |
Krueger, K. |
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978-3-9808134-26 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5568 |
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Author |
Kultus, K.; Balzer, H.-U. |
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Title |
Untersuchungen zur Mensch-Pferd-Beziehung |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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in press |
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Abstract Missing KW - |
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Kultus, K. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
Place of Publication |
Wald |
Editor |
Krueger, K. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5569 |
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Bouskila, A.; de Vries, H.; Hermans, Z.M.; van Dierendonck, M. |
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Title |
Leadership roles in movements of free-roaming Konik horses (Equus caballus) in a Dutch reserve |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2012 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 2. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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We observed the activity and movements of Konik horses (Equus caballus) in order to determine the initiators of movements and the individuals taking the lead in movements of the main groups. We conducted our observations between March-June 2010 along the shores of the Rhine river, in the Blauwe Kamer reserve, in the Netherlands. The horses were introduced to the reserve alongside with cattle to prevent the growth of the forest and maintain the grass habitat. We videotaped all observations on two digital video cameras, one providing the general view of the group and the other scanning and focusing on the individuals, to aid with identification. Horses were recognized based on individual profiles that were created for each one, consisting of photos of both sides and notes of the main characters, such as orientation and coloration of the mane, prominent scars and markings, etc. Twenty three horses (not counting foals) were organized in two harem groups with 11 individuals (two of which were dominant stallions) in the large group and six individuals (one of which was a stallion) in the second group. These two main groups were always within sight of each other, and two bachelor males moved usually in their vicinity. An additional group of three young bachelor males roamed elsewhere in the reserve. We divided the movements of the horses to local movements while grazing and to long-distance movements, in which the horses moved to a different grazing location, to a pond of water, resting area or groups of trees that were used by the horses for scratching themselves. During the local movements, any two of the three oldest females in the large harem group were enough to cause the whole group to follow them and gradually change position within the pasture. The smaller harem always followed the large harem’s movements. The long-distance movements of the large harem were sometimes initiated by one of the harem stallions that herded their group and at other times – by the oldest females. Soon after the movement was clearly initiated, the dominant stallions positioned themselves in the back of the group or in the center and had no influence on the direction of move that was only determined by the leading females. In the long-distance movements too, the small harem followed the large harem group, and the two bachelor males usually followed behind them. Social interactions included aggressive interactions between the two dominant males within the large harem or between dominant stallions and the two bachelor males accompanying the two harems. In addition, dominant males courting or attempting to mate with mares sometimes caused a turmoil that eventually initiated movement of the harems. KW - |
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Bouskila, A. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
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Wald |
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Krueger, K.; |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5592 |
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Author |
Flauger, B.; Krueger, K.; Gerhards, H.; Moestl, E. |
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Title |
Measurement of glucocorticoid metabolites in horse faeces: the validation of different group specific enzymeimmunoassays and extraction methods. |
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Book Chapter |
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2009 |
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Proceeding of the 102. Annual meeting of the Deutsche Zoologische Gesellschaft (DZG). |
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166 |
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Dt. Zoologische Ges |
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München |
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Cremer,S.;Schrempf,A.;Heinze,J. |
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978-3-00-028368-0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5718 |
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Author |
Whitehead , H. |
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Analyzing Animal Societies. Quantitative Methods for Vertebrate Social Analysis |
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2008 |
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chicago |
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EAN: 9780226895246 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5838 |
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Baumgartner, M.; Frank,V.; Gandorfer,J.; Ramoser, A.; Seiler, S.; Zeitler-Feicht, M.H. |
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Feasible animal-based indicators for assessing equine welfare |
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2015 |
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Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting |
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Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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Introduction
Are horses doing well in their husbandries? For the first time the answer shall be given objectively by an integral on-farm welfare assessment system for horse husbandries. A current research project at the Technical University Munich evaluates indicators for well-being, pain and suffering in horses in order to develop a welfare assessment system (Baumgartner and Zeitler-Feicht 2013, 2014a, 2014b, 2015, Zeitler-Feicht et al. 2015). The research project is professionally supported by horse husbandry experts from academics, industries as well as leading organizations for horse owners and veterinarians.
The aim of the project is to develop a welfare assessment system for all horse husbandry systems which can be applied both for sport horses and for leisure horses. It is based on national animal welfare standards (BMELV 2009) and does take sustainability into consideration. Animal-based indicators are completed with resource-based indicators if necessary. It is stipulated that indicators are valid, reliable and feasible.
Welfare criteria were formulated for the two principles „good health“ and „behavioural demands“ (see figure 1 and 2). Each has to be represented by at least one indicator.
The principle „behavioural demands“ aims at the possibility for horses to practise species-specific behaviour. It is gathered to what extent the housing conditions allow the horses to live out and show species-specific behaviour. Furthermore in the present studies the frequency of selected behaviours including abnormal behaviour were collected in precise timeframes.
Potential indicators for assessing equine welfare on-farm were selected by study of literature and field tests. The field tests included direct observations on free-ranged horses, horses in group-housing systems and single-stabled horses. The following section presents selected indicators that are feasible for assessing equine behaviour on-farm.
Feasible behavioural indicators for well-being
The literature research revealed that „being together“ is linked with affiliative behaviour. It includes „resting together“, „foraging together“ and additionally „walking together“. Horses do have a strong need for social bonds. „Being-together“ amongst horses must be voluntary and not caused by bad weather conditions or lack of space. Therefore the context must be considered. For temporary direct observations the frequency in group-housing systems is sufficient (0.57 ± 0.67 per horse per 20 minutes). That´s why in our study „being-together“ is considered as a feasible indicator for well-being for horses in permanent or temporary groups. It is intended to conduct further studies on its validity.
Other behaviours such as „social play“ is not only linked with positive emotional states in adult horses. Several studies showed that horses use „social play“ as a stress relief. However, it is too seldom to collect in an on-farm assessment system. Because of the lack of feasibility and validity we excluded „social play“ as an indicator for well-being.
Feasible behavioural indicators for suffering
Horses show „abnormal behaviour“ in distress, frustration, deprivation or conflict situations. The present studies showed a relatively high frequency in single-stabled horses (3.3 ± 6.45 per horse per 20 minutes). Hence „abnormal behaviour“ is a feasible and valid indicator for suffering. However, established stereotypes need to be excluded, because they may indicate a previous welfare status rather than the current welfare status.
Horses use „agonistic behaviour“ to regulate social relations, to defend themselves or to defend resources. If husbandry or management is inadequate, „agonistic behaviour“ increases and thereby the frequency of injuries caused by social conflicts. A high frequency of „agonistic behaviour“ indicates a high aggression level in group-housed horses and therefore distress and suffering. The mean frequency of group-housed horses is sufficient for temporary observations (2.6 ± 2.26 per horse per 20 minutes). As a result „agonistic behaviour“ is a feasible and vaild indicator for suffering. Further studies need to be done on the scoring and severity.
Key words
Animal-based indicators
Equine welfare
Being-together
Abnormal behaviour
Agonistic behaviour
References
Baumgartner M. & M. H. Zeitler-Feicht (2013): Entwicklung eines Bewertungssystems zur Beurteilung der Tiergerechtheit von Pferdehaltungen als Bestandteil eines Nachhaltigkeitsmanagementsystems. KTBL Schrift: Aktuelle Arbeiten zur artgemäßen Tierhaltung 503, 226 – 227.
Baumgartner M. & M. H. Zeitler-Feicht (2014a): Indikatoren für Tierwohl beim Pferd. 7. Pferde-Workshop Uelzen 2014. DGfZ-Schriftreihe Heft 64, 161 – 166.
Baumgartner M. & M. H. Zeitler-Feicht (2014b): Entwicklung eines Bewertungssystems zur Beurteilung der Tiergerechtheit von Pferdehaltungen als Bestandteil eines Nachhaltigkeitsmanagementsystems. 9. Niedersächsisches Tierschutzsymposium in Oldenburg, Hrsg. Nds. Ministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz, 37 – 42.
Baumgartner M. & M.H. Zeitler-Feicht (2015): Eignung ausgewählter tierbezogener Indikatoren zur Beurteilung der Tiergerechtheit von Pferdehaltungen hinsichtlich Praktikabilität. In: Tagungsband der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesellschaft e.V. (DVG), Fachgruppen „Ethologie und Tierhaltung“ sowie „Tierschutz“, Verlag der DVG Service GmbH, Gießen, S. 182 – 192.
BMELV (2009): Leitlinien zur Beurteilung von Pferdehaltungen unter Tierschutzgesichtspunkten. Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz. Sachverständigengruppe tierschutzgerechte Pferdehaltung.
Zeitler-Feicht M.H., Frank V., Ramoser A., Seiler S., Girisch C., Baumgartner M. (2015): Anhand welcher Verhaltensweisen lassen sich Rückschlüsse auf das Wohlbefinden von Pferden ziehen? In: Tagungsband der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesellschaft e.V. (DVG), Fachgruppen „Ethologie und Tierhaltung“ sowie „Tierschutz“, Verlag der DVG Service GmbH, Gießen, S. 148 – 156. |
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Baumgartner,M. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
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Wald |
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Krüger. K. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5868 |
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