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Houpt, K. A., & Smith, R. (1993). Animal behavior case of the month. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 203(3), 377–378.
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Palagi, E., Cordoni, G., & Borgognini Tarli, S. (2006). Possible roles of consolation in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Am J Phys Anthropol, 129(1), 105–111.
Abstract: Empathy is a necessary prerequisite for the occurrence of consolation. The term “consolation” contains a hypothesis about function, which is distress alleviation. The present study aims to confirm the occurrence of consolation in captive chimpanzees via the post-conflict/matched-control method (PC-MC) and to suggest its possible roles. We collected 273 PC-MC pairs in the group of Pan troglodytes housed in the ZooParc de Beauval (France). We confirmed the presence of consolatory contacts (mean level of consolation, 49.5% +/- 22.3% SEM) in the colony. Consolation rates were significantly higher than reconciliation levels (mean level of reconciliation, 28.9% +/- 16.8% SEM). The level of consolation was greater in the absence of reconciliation than in the presence of it, suggesting that consolation might be an alternative behavior. As friendship and relatedness did not influence the occurrence of consolation, they did not seem to be the best prerequisites for this behavioral mechanism, at least in this chimpanzee colony. Affinitive contacts with third parties were significantly more frequent when the victim called attention to itself during severe aggressions by screaming. These high-pitched sounds seem to be useful in eliciting aid from conspecifics, as occurs in young humans. The occurrence of consolation reduced the likelihood of further attacks among group-members. From this perspective, both victims and consolers most likely gain potential advantages by interacting with each other when aggression is particularly severe, reconciliation is not immediate, and consequently social stress reaches high levels.
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Pluhácek, J., Bartos, L., Bartosová, J., & Kotrba, R. (2010). Feeding behaviour affects nursing behaviour in captive plains zebra (Equus burchellii). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 128(1-4), 97–102.
Abstract: Equids spend more than half of the day feeding. Lactation is a very demanding form of maternal investment. In an environment such as a zoo, where no grass but several feeding sites are present, conflict between suckling behaviour of the foal and feeding behaviour of the lactating mother should occur. We observed 20 foals of captive plains zebra, Equus burchellii, at the Dvur Králové Zoo, Czech Republic, and collected data concerning suckling events during 17 months of observation. First, we examined whether feeding by the mother while nursing affected suckling behaviour. We found that when the mother was feeding, the proportion of suckling bouts she terminated decreased with increasing age of the foal, whereas it did not change when she was not feeding. This result supported the trade-off between suckling and feeding behaviour which has been reported in other ungulates. Second, we examined what affected interruptions of feeding behaviour of the mother during the suckling bout. The proportion of interruptions of feeding by the mother during nursing increased with increasing age of her foal. This coincides with declining time spent nursing. In addition, younger mothers interrupted their feeding behaviour during suckling bouts more often than older ones. Mothers interrupted feeding during the suckling bout more often when they nursed a daughter than when they nursed a son. The results of our study show that feeding while suckling could reduce parent-offspring conflict and improve welfare of captive foals and mares.
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Dierenfeld, E. S. (1994). Vitamin E in exotics: effects, evaluation and ecology. J Nutr, 124(12 Suppl), 2579s–2581s.
Abstract: The pathophysiology and lesions associated with vitamin E deficiency are similar between domestic and exotic species, and circulating plasma concentrations are also similar between comparable groups. However, many ecological variables must be considered for the most relevant comparisons. Tissue values of vitamin E, apart from plasma, are unknown for most exotics. Dietary vitamin E requirements of exotic species and domestics appear to differ; based on natural foodstuff analyses and clinical observations, between 50 and 200 mg vitamin E/kg DM are necessary to prevent vitamin E deficiency, 5- to 10-fold higher than current livestock recommendations.
Keywords: Animal Feed/*analysis; Animals; Animals, Zoo/blood/*metabolism; Antelopes/blood/metabolism; Birds/blood/metabolism; Deer/blood/metabolism; Elephants/blood/metabolism; Equidae/blood/metabolism; Perissodactyla/blood/metabolism; Vitamin E/*administration & dosage/analysis/blood; Vitamin E Deficiency/pathology/physiopathology/veterinary
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Blunden, A. S., Smith, K. C., Whitwell, K. E., & Dunn, K. A. (1998). Systemic infection by equid herpesvirus-1 in a Grevy's zebra stallion (Equus grevyi) with particular reference to genital pathology. J Comp Pathol, 119(4), 485–493.
Abstract: A severe multi-systemic form of equid herpesvirus-1 infection is described in an adult zebra stallion. There was multifocal necrotizing rhinitis, marked hydrothorax and pulmonary oedema, with viral antigen expression in degenerating epithelial cells, local endothelial cells and intravascular leucocytes of the nasal mucosa and lung. Specific localization of EHV-1 infection was seen in the testes and epididymides, including infection of Leydig cells and germinal epithelium, which would have facilitated venereal shedding of virus in life. The case provided a unique opportunity to study hitherto undescribed aspects of the pathogenesis of naturally occurring EHV-1 infection in the male equine genital tract. Restriction digests of the isolate demonstrated a pattern similar to that of EHV-1 isolates previously recovered from aborted zebra and onager fetuses.
Keywords: Animals; Animals, Zoo; Epididymis/pathology/virology; Equidae/*virology; Herpesviridae Infections/diagnosis/pathology/*veterinary; Herpesvirus 1, Equid/isolation & purification/*pathogenicity; Lymph Nodes/pathology/virology; Male; Nasal Mucosa/pathology/virology; Pulmonary Edema/pathology; Spleen/virology; Testis/*pathology/virology
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Pluhacek, J., Bartos, L., & Culik, L. (2006). High-ranking mares of captive plains zebra Equus burchelli have greater reproductive success than low-ranking mares. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 99(3-4), 315–329.
Abstract: Plains zebra live in harems that include one to six adult mares. Between these mares is a strong order of social hierarchy. The social rank of an equid mare is typically correlated with her age. Further, high-ranking captive plains zebra mares produce more surviving offspring than low-ranking mares. The objectives of this study were to, first, examined the factors that influence social rank of captive plains zebra mares, and second, test if high-ranking mares conceive earlier and if they have shorter inter-birth intervals than low-ranking ones. We observed three herds of captive plains zebra (a total of 18 mares) at the Dvur Kralove Zoo, Czech Republic. During the 831 h of observation, we recorded 1713 aggressive interactions (biting and offensive kicking) between the mares. These data were used to determine, for each mare, the total number of mares that dominated her in each period of social stability. The GLMM model revealed that older mares were dominated by a lower number of mares than the younger mares. We also found that the probability that a mare would conceive declined with the increasing number of dominant mares. Further, we tested the relationship between the number of dominant mares and the inter-birth interval using 29 intervals for 15 mares. These inter-birth intervals were divided into two groups. When a stallion was continuously present in the herd, the intervals lasted from one birth to the next birth (natural intervals). When a herd was without a stallion, the intervals lasted from the release of the stallion into the herd to the birth of foal (stallion-influenced intervals). The analysis revealed that the inter-birth intervals decreased with an increasing number of dominant mares and the natural intervals decreased with an increasing number of offspring successfully reared by a mare. This finding is the first one in equids and contributes to the previous findings that suggest that social status influences reproductive success.
Keywords: Equus burchelli; Social hierarchy; Reproductive success; Inter-birth interval; Zoo; Zebra
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Alexander, D. J. (1982). Ecological aspects of influenza A viruses in animals and their relationship to human influenza: a review. J R Soc Med, 75(10), 799–811.
Keywords: Animals; *Animals, Domestic; Bird Diseases/transmission; Birds; Disease Outbreaks; Ecology; Horse Diseases/transmission; Horses; Humans; Influenza A virus/genetics/isolation & purification; Influenza, Human/microbiology/*transmission/veterinary; Swine; Swine Diseases/transmission; Zoonoses/transmission
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Kendal, R. L., Coe, R. L., & Laland, K. N. (2005). Age differences in neophilia, exploration, and innovation in family groups of callitrichid monkeys. Am. J. Primatol., 66(2), 167–188.
Abstract: The prevailing assumption in the primate literature is that young or juvenile primates are more innovative than adult individuals. This innovative tendency among the young is frequently thought to be a consequence, or side effect, of their increased rates of exploration and play. Conversely, Reader and Laland's [International Journal of Primatology 22:787-806, 2001] review of the primate innovation literature noted a greater reported incidence of innovation in adults than nonadults, which they interpreted as (in part) a reflection of the greater experience and competence of older individuals. Within callitrichids there is contradictory evidence for age differences in response to novel objects, foods, and foraging tasks. By presenting novel extractive foraging tasks to family groups of callitrichid monkeys in zoos, we examined, in a large sample, whether there are positive or negative relationships of age with neophilia, exploration, and innovation, and whether play or experience most facilitates innovation. The results indicate that exploration and innovation (but not neophilia) are positively correlated with age, perhaps reflecting adults' greater manipulative competence. To the extent that there was evidence for play in younger individuals, it did not appear to contribute to innovation. The implications of these findings for the fields of innovation and conservation through reintroduction are considered.
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Palagi, E., Paoli, T., & Tarli, S. B. (2004). Reconciliation and consolation in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). Am. J. Primatol., 62(1), 15–30.
Abstract: Although reconciliation in bonobos (Pan paniscus) has previously been described, it has not been analyzed heretofore by the postconflict (PC) match-control (MC) method. Furthermore, although reconciliation has been investigated before in this species, consolation has not. In this study we analyzed agonistic and affiliative contacts in all sex-class combinations to clarify and reevaluate the occurrence of reconciliation in bonobos via the PC-MC method. We also investigated the occurrence of consolation by analyzing the victims' triadic contact tendency (TCT), the influence of the sex of victims, and the relative occurrence of consolation and reconciliation. We collected 167 pairs of PC-MC observations in a captive group of bonobos (in Apeldoorn, The Netherlands). The conciliatory tendency (CCT) we obtained was tendentially lower than the mean value previously found for Yerkes captive chimpanzees. Close relationships, which were present in all female-female (FF) and some male-female (MF) dyads, positively affected reconciliation rates. When only adult PC-MC pairs (157) were considered, the mean TCTs and CCTs did not differ significantly. When we focused on types of PC affiliative contact, in the case of consolation we found a striking preference for sociosexual patterns. As to the relative occurrence of consolation and reconciliation, the highest level of the former was found in the absence of the latter. When reconciliation took place, consolation generally preceded it, suggesting that consolation may be a substitutive behavior. Our findings suggest that even if reconciliation remains the best option, consolation may be an alternative substitute for reconciliation that is used to buffer the tension originating from an unresolved conflict. Reconciliation and consolation are complex phenomena that are probably related to the life history of a group. Given that few studies have been conducted on this subject, we can not at this time make any generalizations regarding conflict resolution in certain species by comparing results among studies.
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Walker, M. L., & Becklund, W. W. (1971). Occurrence of a cattle eyeworm, Thelazia gulosa (Nematoda: Thelaziidae), in an imported giraffe in California and T. lacrymalis in a native horse in Maryland. J Parasitol, 57(6), 1362–1363.
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