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Powell, A. J., & Wolff, P. R. (1982). Sex differences in mouse urination patterns. Anim. Behav., 30(4), 1207–1211.
Abstract: When tested in circular open fields male and female mice (Mus musculus) produced strongly centrifugal urination patterns, which showed a clear `edge-dependency' in all the field sizes used. However, striking sex differences in the pattern of deposition were shown in terms of both the number and distribution of the urine spots. Male mice produce large numbers of spots which are regularly dispersed, while females produce relatively fewer spots with a more clumped distribution. It is suggested that a hitherto unsuspected level of intersexual communication may explain these differences.
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Marinier, S. L., & Alexander, A. J. (1991). Selective grazing behaviour in horses: development of methodology and preliminary use of tests to measure individual grazing ability. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30(3-4), 203–221.
Abstract: Methods are described to assess horses' selective grazing ability that includes choosing, sorting and the adaptive value of this behaviour. Choosing ability was tested by the experimenter presenting pairs of cut plant species that were then alternated at each presentation until the test horse had taken three bites of one of the plant pair. The results were analysed in relation to five measures of choosing behaviour: (1) the strength of the choice; (2) correspondence between first bite and the final choice; (3) constancy of the choice over a number of trials; (4) the comparison of the horses' ranking of the species over a number of trials; (5) the constancy of the linear arrangement of the plants over a number of trials. Sorting ability was tested using two methods. A mixture of two plant species was presented either in a clamp or loose in a trough. Results were based on number and weight of plant residues. The adaptive value of the behaviour related to the bitterness of toxic plants. This bitterness was represented in testing by quinine sulphate and a poisonous Senecio species. An extremely bitter substance “Bitrex” was also used in this context but was totally accepted by the horses. The horses' reactions to these substances were monitored using a behavioural score chart. The results from 12 horses revealed that the horses differed individually in their grazing ability. On this basis, the horses were classified as efficient, semi-efficient, or inefficient grazers. This finding has practical implications in deciding which horses may safely graze on pastures infested with toxic plants.
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Boyd, R., & Silk, J. B. (1983). A method for assigning cardinal dominance ranks. Anim. Behav., 31(1), 45–58.
Abstract: Dominance hierarchies are widely described in nature. Commonly, an individual's ordinal rank is used as a measure of its position in the hierarchy, and, therefore its priority of access to resources. This use of ordinal ranks has several related drawbacks: (1) it is difficult to assess the magnitude or the significance of the difference in degree of dominance between two individuals; (2) it is difficult to evaluate the significance of differences between dominance matrices based on different behaviours or on the same behaviour at different times, and (3) it is difficult to use parametric statistical techniques to relate dominance rank to other quantities of interest. In this paper we describe a method for assigning cardinal dominance indices that does not suffer from these drawbacks. This technique is based on the Bradley-Terry model from the method of paired comparisons. We show how this model can be reinterpreted in terms of dominance interactions. and we describe a simple iterative technique for computing cardinal ranks. We then describe how to evaluate (1) whether the rank differences between individuals are significant, and (2) whether differences in the cardinal hierarchies based on different behaviours or the same behaviour at different times are significant. We then show how to generalize the method to deal with behaviours that sometimes have ambiguous outcomes, or behaviours for which the rank difference between a pair of individuals affects the rate of interaction between them.
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Caanitz, H., O'Leary, L., Houpt, K., Petersson, K., & Hintz, H. (1991). Effect of exercise on equine behavior. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31(1-2), 1–12.
Abstract: The effect of short periods of strenuous exertion, in this case treadmill exercise, on the subsequent behavior of Standardbred horses was examined. Six horses were exercised on a high-speed treadmill 4 or 5 days per week, for 3-4 miles (approximately 1.8 m s-1 for 3 min, 5 m s-1 for 12 min, 9 m s-1 for 3 min, 3 m s-1 for 3 min, 1.8 m s-1 for 3 min). The behavior of the horses was observed in the horse's home stall immediately after exercise and 2-7 h after exercise. Focal animal sampling for a total of 150 h revealed that the horses spent significantly more time drinking and less time resting after exercise than they did on control (non-exercise or rest days). The greatest influence on behavior was seen immediately after exercise. The horses spent 13.2+/-2.7 s per 15 min drinking after exercise and 7.2+/-2.3 s per 15 min drinking on non-exercise days. They spent 7.3+/-1.5 min h-1 stand resting after exercise and 9.7+/-2.1 min h-1 on non-exercise days. These changes in behavior may be related to the physiological changes that accompany exercise. Eating, walking, elimination and self-grooming were not significantly influenced by exercise. In a second experiment the activities of two groups of six Standardbred mares were compared. One group was exercised on the treadmill and the other was not. The exercised horses spent more time drinking and lying, but urinated less than the non-exercised group.
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Kabuga, J. D., Gari-Kwaku, J., & Annor, S. Y. (1991). Social status and its relationships to maintenance behaviour in a herd of N'dama and West African Shorthorn cattle. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31(3-4), 169–181.
Abstract: Social-related behaviour of N'dama and West African Shorthorn (WASH) cattle grazing together was studied over 10 consecutive days. Dominance was not related to age, liveweight or leadership when the animals were led into a weighing scale or into and out of the experimental paddock. Dominance had no influence on the use of shade, on drinking frequency or on grazing time, it was, however, positively associated with time spent ruminating and idling and with the frequency of allogrooming. Forced leadership into a weighing scale was negatively correlated (Spearmans rank correlation (rs=-0.69, P<0.05) with liveweight while voluntary leadership, out of the experimental paddock (rs=0.85, P<0.01) and into the experimental paddock (rs=0.76, P<0.05), was positively correlated with liveweight. Voluntary leadership also positively and significantly (P<0.01) influenced the frequency of visits to the water trough. All measures of leadership were significantly but negatively correlated with frequency of social association (close contact) between cows. N'dama were more aggressive than WASH and had higher dominance values. There was a slight tendency for WASH to associate more with their peers than N'dama with their peers. Social behaviours such as allogrooming were low and rubbing and sniffing absent in both breeds.
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Appleby, M. C. (1983). The probability of linearity in hierarchies. Anim. Behav., 31(2), 600–608.
Abstract: The common practice of ranking a group of animals in the closest possible order to a linear dominance hierarchy assumes that dominance among those animals is generally transitive. In fact, analysis of groups in which dominance relationships are random shows that this method has a surprisingly high probability of producing an apparently linear or near-linear hierarchy by chance. As such, the existence of transitive dominance should be tested before it is used in ranking. A suitable statistical test is described here. Chance may also contribute to the linear appearance of hierarchies based on other factors.
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Mal, M. E., Friend, T. H., Lay, D. C., Vogelsang, S. G., & Jenkins, O. C. (1991). Behavioral responses of mares to short-term confinement and social isolation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31(1-2), 13–24.
Abstract: Thirty-six mares, blocked by age and temperament score, were assigned to one of three treatment groups: pasture (P); confinement stalls (C), allowing social contact; isolation stalls (ISS), allowing no contact with conspecifics. After 48 h on treatment, the mares were observed in situ for 1 h. Medium temperament and highly reactive ISS mares spent more time eating grain (P<0.01) and exhibited more grain-eating bouts (P<0.03) than P and C mares. Calm P mares had longer forage-eating bouts than C and ISS mares (P<0.02). During a 15 min open-field test in a 23 m x 23 m pen after 72 h on treatment, ISS mares traveled farther (P<0.005) than C and P mares, spent more total time trotting (P<0.01) than C and P mares, and exhibited a greater number of trotting bouts (P<0.01) than both C and P mares. Isolated mares spent less total time standing during the open-field test than C (P<0.05) and P (P<0.01) mares, but exhibited a greater number of standing bouts than C (P<0.05) and P (P<0.01) mares. Isolated mares also exhibited a greater number of total activity bouts (P<0.01) during the open-field test than both C and P mares; P mares also exhibited fewer activity bouts than C mares (P<0.1). Results indicate that mares kept in confined and isolated environments showed greater motivation for movement and performance of a greater number of activities than those maintained on pasture with conspecifics.
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Kacelnik, A., & Houston, A. I. (1984). Some effects of energy costs on foraging strategies. Anim. Behav., 32(2), 609–614.
Abstract: We consider the effect of including energy costs on the optimal strategy for animals exploiting a depleting food resource. In the context of central place foraging this leads to the problem of what load size should be brought back to the central place. Two strategies are discussed: (i) maximize gross rate of energy delivery and (ii) maximize net rate of energy delivery. The optimal load size (or optimal patch time) for net maximizers is not always larger than for gross maximizers, as has been claimed. Instead, the difference in optimal load size has the same sign as the difference between metabolic rates of travelling and foraging. We point out that the influence of costs has not always been correctly incorporated in experimental tests of the theory.
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Wolff, P. R., & Powell, A. J. (1984). Urine patterns in mice: An analysis of male/female counter-marking. Anim. Behav., 32(4), 1185–1191.
Abstract: Counter-marking in mice, Mus musculus was investigated by analysing urine deposition on filter paper marked asymmetrically with urine of the opposite sex. Intact males deposited large numbers of urine spots with a marked angular bias towards previously marked quadrants. More spots were deposited on proestrous and ovariectomized donor urine patterns, their distribution being more centrifugal on oestrous urine and more centripetal in quadrants containing a large female urine spot in a central position. In contrast, castrated male mice deposited very few spots with no angular bias. Female urine patterns showed angular bias in response to intact, but not castrated male donor urine, a larger number of spots being produced by oestrous females. Thus the pattern of deposition offers scope for two-way communication of information about reproductive potential.
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McFarland, D. J. (1984). Roger L. Mellgren, Editor, Animal Cognition and Behavior, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1983), p. xi. Anim. Behav., 32(2), 634–635.
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