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Joslin, P. W. B. (1967). Movements and home sites of timber wolves in Algonquin Park. Am Zool, 7.
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Edwards, K. L., Bansiddhi, P., Paris, S., Galloway, M., & Brown, J. L. (2019). The development of an immunoassay to measure immunoglobulin A in Asian elephant feces, saliva, urine and serum as a potential biomarker of well-being. conphys, 7(1).
Abstract: Additional measures of well-being would be beneficial to the management of a variety of species in human care, including elephants. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is an immune protein associated with pathogen defense, which has been demonstrated to decrease during times of stress, and increase in response to positive stimuli. This paper describes the development and validation of an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for the quantification of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) IgA in feces, saliva, urine, and serum. Samples were collected weekly from four females for 6 months to assess IgA and glucocorticoid (GC) concentrations, establish relationships between these two biomarkers, and determine variability in IgA within and between individuals, and across sample types. IgA was quantified in all four sample types, although urinary concentrations were low and sometimes undetectable in individual samples. Concentrations were highly variable within and between individuals, with fecal, salivary and serum IgA, and fecal, salivary and urinary GCs all differing significantly across individuals. Contrary to previous findings, IgA and GC were generally not correlated. Serum IgA was less variable within individuals, with the exception of one female that experienced a brief illness during the study. However, marked inter-individual differences were still apparent. When data from all individuals were combined, fecal IgA was significantly predicted by salivary and urinary IgA; however, this relationship did not hold when individuals were analyzed separately. Analysis of a fifth female that exhibited a more severe systemic illness demonstrated clear increases in fecal IgA and GC, suggesting these may also be useful health biomarkers. Further investigation is needed to determine what sample type is most reflective of biological state in elephants, and how IgA concentrations are associated with health and positive and negative welfare states. Based on observed variability, a longitudinal approach likely will be necessary to use IgA as a measure of well-being.
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Krueger, K., Marr, I., Dobler, A., & Palme, R. (2019). Preservation of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and immunoglobulin A through silica gel drying for field studies in horses. conphys, 7(1).
Abstract: Non-invasive methods enable stress evaluation through measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs), and immunoglobulin A (IgA) in the feces avoiding stressful blood drawing or stressful restraining of animals in the field. However, FGMs and IgA are mostly analysed in freshly frozen samples, which is difficult when fresh samples cannot be frozen immediately or frozen samples cannot be stored or transported. Good results were also derived from air-dried fecal samples, which are hampered by unstable air humidity in the field. These difficulties may be overcome, when drying of samples could be induced with colorless silica gel (SiO2) granules in a secure set-up, such as an air tight tube. We determined the speed of drying 1.5 g of a fresh fecal sample from six horses on air and on silica gel. Furthermore, FGMs and IgA were analysed in differently stored subsamples from 12 horses: in frozen fecal samples, in air- or silica gel-dried samples stored for 1 day and for 7 days, and in wet fecal samples kept in a tube at room temperature for 7 days. FGM levels remained stable in feces dried on air or on silica gel for 7 days, whereas IgA quantities showed a significant loss. Under field conditions, when freezing or transporting the frozen samples is not possible and humidity hampers air drying, drying samples on silica gel in air tight tubes appears to be very helpful and reliable for analysing FGMs.
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Marr, I., Preisler, V., Farmer, K., Stefanski, V., & Krueger, K. (2020). Non-invasive stress evaluation in domestic horses (Equus caballus): impact of housing conditions on sensory laterality and immunoglobulin A. Royal Society Open Science, 7(2), 191994.
Abstract: The study aimed to evaluate sensory laterality and concentration of faecal immunoglobulin A (IgA) as non-invasive measures of stress in horses by comparing them with the already established measures of motor laterality and faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs). Eleven three-year-old horses were exposed to known stressful situations (change of housing, initial training) to assess the two new parameters. Sensory laterality initially shifted significantly to the left and faecal FGMs were significantly increased on the change from group to individual housing and remained high through initial training. Motor laterality shifted significantly to the left after one week of individual stabling. Faecal IgA remained unchanged throughout the experiment. We therefore suggest that sensory laterality may be helpful in assessing acute stress in horses, especially on an individual level, as it proved to be an objective behavioural parameter that is easy to observe. Comparably, motor laterality may be helpful in assessing long-lasting stress. The results indicate that stress changes sensory laterality in horses, but further research is needed on a larger sample to evaluate elevated chronic stress, as it was not clear whether the horses of the present study experienced compromised welfare, which it has been proposed may affect faecal IgA.
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Scopa, C., Greco, A., Contalbrigo, L., Fratini, E., Lanatà, A., Scilingo, E. P., et al. (2020). Inside the Interaction: Contact With Familiar Humans Modulates Heart Rate Variability in Horses. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 998.
Abstract: A human-animal relationship can be developed through subsequent interactions, affected by the positive or negative emotional valence of the proceeding one. Horses implement a process of categorization to classify humans with whom they interact as positive, negative, or neutral stimuli by evaluating the kind of approach and the nature of the contact. In these terms, human-animal interactions are emotionally charged events, eliciting specific emotional states in both subjects involved. Although the human-horse relationship has been mainly investigated through behavioral analysis, physiological indicators are needed for a more objective assessment of the emotional responses. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a commonly used autonomic nervous system (ANS) correlate estimating the sympathovagal balance as a psychophysiological marker of emotion regulation in horses. We have assumed that long-term positive relationships with humans may have a positive and immediate impact on the emotional arousal of the horse, detectable, via ANS activity, during the interaction. We analyzed horses' heartbeat dynamics during their interaction with either familiar or unfamiliar handlers, applying a standardized experimental protocol consisting of three different conditions shifting from the absence of interaction to physical contact. The ANS signals were monitored through an innovative non-invasive wearable system, not interfering with the unconscious emotional response of the animal. We demonstrated that horses appeared to feel more relaxed while physically interacting (e.g., grooming on the right side) with some familiar handlers compared to the same task performed by someone unfamiliar. The shift of the sympathovagal balance toward a vagal predominance suggests that the horses experienced a decrease in stress response as a function not only of the handler's familiarity but also of the type of interaction they are experiencing. These results constitute the objective evidence of horses' capacity to individually recognize a familiar person, adding the crucial role of familiarity with the handler as a paramount component of human-animal interaction. Our rigorous methodological approach may provide a significant contribution to various fields such as animal welfare while further investigating the emotional side of the human-animal relationships.
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Rørvang, M. V., Nielsen, B. L., & McLean, A. N. (2020). Sensory Abilities of Horses and Their Importance for Equitation Science. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 633.
Abstract: Vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and touch comprise the sensory modalities of most vertebrates. With these senses, the animal receives information about its environment. How this information is organized, interpreted, and experienced is known as perception. The study of the sensory abilities of animals and their implications for behavior is central not only to ethology but also to animal welfare. Sensory ability, perception, and behavior are closely linked. Horses and humans share the five most common sensory modalities, however, their ranges and capacities differ, so that horses are unlikely to perceive their surroundings in a similar manner to humans. Understanding equine perceptual abilities and their differences is important when horses and human interact, as these abilities are pivotal for the response of the horse to any changes in its surroundings. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the sensory abilities of horses. The information is discussed within an evolutionary context and also includes a practical perspective, outlining potential ways to mitigate risks of injuries and enhance positive horse-human interactions. The equine sensory apparatus includes panoramic visual capacities with acuities similar to those of red-green color-blind humans as well as aural abilities that, in some respects exceed human hearing and a highly developed sense of smell, all of which influence how horses react in various situations. Equine sensitivity to touch has been studied surprisingly sparingly despite tactile stimulation being the major interface of horse training. We discuss the potential use of sensory enrichment/positive sensory stimulation to improve the welfare of horses in various situations e.g. using odors, touch or sound to enrich the environment or to appease horses. In addition, equine perception is affected by factors such as breed, individuality, age, and in some cases even color, emphasizing that different horses may need different types of management. Understanding the sensory abilities of horses is central to the emerging discipline of equitation science, which comprises the gamut of horse-human interactions. Therefore, sensory abilities continue to warrant scientific focus, with more research to enable us to understand different horses and their various needs.
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GONÇALVES DA SILVA, A., CAMPOS-ARCEIZ, A., & ZAVADA, M. S. (2013). On tapir ecology, evolution and conservation: what we know and future perspectives–part II. Integrative Zoology, 8(1), 1–3.
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Pfammatter, M., Huwiler, S., Kägi, F., Kopp, C., Krüger, K., & Herholz, C. (2017). Leistung und Stresslevel bei Maultieren während eines fünftägigen Gotthardtrecks [Performance et niveau de stress chez les mulets durant un trek de cinq jours sur le Gothard][Muli: prestazione e livello di stress durante una traversata del Gottardo di 5 giorni][Performance and stress level in mules during a five days Gotthard trek]. Agrarforschung Schweiz, 8((7-8)), 276–283.
Abstract: Während einer fünftägigen Gotthardüberquerung im Sommer 2016 haben drei Maultiere als Tragtiere mit einer Gepäcklast von je 80 kg rund 94,46 Kilometer und 3�364 Höhenmeter bewältigt. Die Leistungsanforderung wurde anhand der Erholungswerte der Vitalparameter Herzfrequenz, Atemfrequenz und Körpertemperatur, sowie durch kontinuierliche Herzfrequenzmessung während der Belastung evaluiert. Die Bestimmung der Glucokortikoid- Metabolit Konzentration im Kot diente zur Einschätzung des Stresslevels der drei Maultiere. Die Erholungswerte der Herzfrequenzen der drei Maultiere lagen während allen Trekkingetappen in einem Bereich, der nicht auf eine Leistungsüberforderung schliessen liess. Anhand der kontinuierlichen Herzfrequenzaufzeichnung bei einem der Maultiere konnte gezeigt werden, dass die physische Leistungsanforderung im Ausdauerbereich lag. Wie als normale physiologische Reaktion des Körpers nach einer fünftägigen körperlichen Belastung erwartet, stieg Stresslevel gemessen an den Glucokortikoid- Metaboliten im Kot gegen Ende des Trecks bei allen Maultieren an. In der vorliegenden Studie konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Maultiere während des Gotthardtrecks ausdauernd belastbar waren, ohne durch die Anstrengung beeinträchtigt zu sein, die schon historisch von Maultieren abverlangt wurde.[
Durant une traversée du Gothard de cinq jours pendant l�été 2016, trois mulets ont été employés comme animaux de bât pour porter une charge de 80 kg sur 94,46 km, avec un dénivelé de 3364 m. Les exigences de performance ont été évaluées à partir des valeurs de récupération des paramètres vitaux (fréquence cardiaque, fréquence respiratoire et température corporelle) et de la fréquence cardiaque durant l�effort. La concentration en métabolites glucocorticoïdes dans le crottin a permis d�estimer le niveau de stress des trois animaux. Durant toute la durée du trek, les valeurs de récupération de la fréquence cardiaque des trois mulets étaient comprises dans un intervalle n�indiquant aucun effort excessif. La mesure constante des pulsations cardiaques a montré que l�intensité des performances physiques de ces animaux ne sortait pas de leur zone d�endurance. Comme on pouvait s�y attendre, le niveau de stress mesuré par le biais des métabolites glucocorticoïdes a augmenté chez tous les mulets à la fin du trek, réaction physiologique normale du corps après un effort de cinq jours. La présente étude a montré que durant un trek sur le Gothard, les mulets ont fait preuve d�endurance et de résistance, sans altération due à l�effort que l�on exige traditionnellement de leur part.][Nell�estate del 2016 tre muli impiegati come animali da soma hanno attraversato il Gottardo portando un carico di 80 kg ciascuno e percorrendo in cinque giorni un percorso di circa 94,46 chilometri con un dislivello di 3364 metri. La prestazione è stata valutata sulla base dei valori di recupero dei parametri vitali (frequenza cardiaca, frequenza respiratoria, temperatura corporea) e misurando costantemente la frequenza cardiaca sotto sforzo. Il livello di stress dei tre muli è stato valutato in funzione della concentrazione di metaboliti glicocorticoidi riscontrata nelle feci. In tutte le tappe del trekking i valori di recupero della frequenza cardiaca registrati nei muli rientravano in un intervallo che non lasciava supporre un sovraccarico. Sulla base della registrazione costante della frequenza cardiaca di uno dei tre muli è stato possibile dimostrare che l�intensità dello sforzo fisico non superava il loro intervallo di resistenza. Come previsto, verso la fine del trekking la concentrazione di metaboliti glicocorticoidi nelle feci di tutti e tre i muli indicava un aumento del livello di stress; si tratta di una reazione fisiologica normale dopo uno sforzo fisico di cinque giorni. Questo studio ha dimostrato che lo sforzo sopportato dai muli per portare un carico attraverso il Gottardo, un compito da secoli richiesto a questi animali, rientrava nel loro intervallo di resistenza e non ha avuto ripercussioni negative sul loro fisico.][In the summer of 2016, three pack mules, each carrying a load weighing 80kg, accompanied a 94.46km trek across the Gotthard Pass with a total altitude difference of 3,364m. The mules� performances were evaluated by measuring vital recovery parameters such as heart- and respiratory rates and body temperature, and by continuous heartrate monitoring during the trek. The stress levels of the animals were estimated by determining glucocorticoid metabolite levels in their faeces. Throughout the trekking days, recovery heartrates lay within a range which indicated that the animals were not being overworked. The continuous heartrate monitoring of one of the mules showed that its physical performance lay within the endurance zone. As expected, glucocorticoid metabolite levels were elevated in the faeces of all the mules � a normal physiological response after five consecutive days of exercise. The study shows the mules as being capable of performing at an endurance level during the Gotthard trek with no adverse affects on their health � a performance which was historically expected of the animals.]
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Petersen, J. L., Mickelson, J. R., Cothran, E. G., Andersson, L. S., Axelsson, J., Bailey, E., et al. (2013). Genetic Diversity in the Modern Horse Illustrated from Genome-Wide SNP Data. Plos One, 8(1), e54997.
Abstract: Horses were domesticated from the Eurasian steppes 5,000-6,000 years ago. Since then, the use of horses for transportation, warfare, and agriculture, as well as selection for desired traits and fitness, has resulted in diverse populations distributed across the world, many of which have become or are in the process of becoming formally organized into closed, breeding populations (breeds). This report describes the use of a genome-wide set of autosomal SNPs and 814 horses from 36 breeds to provide the first detailed description of equine breed diversity. FST calculations, parsimony, and distance analysis demonstrated relationships among the breeds that largely reflect geographic origins and known breed histories. Low levels of population divergence were observed between breeds that are relatively early on in the process of breed development, and between those with high levels of within-breed diversity, whether due to large population size, ongoing outcrossing, or large within-breed phenotypic diversity. Populations with low within-breed diversity included those which have experienced population bottlenecks, have been under intense selective pressure, or are closed populations with long breed histories. These results provide new insights into the relationships among and the diversity within breeds of horses. In addition these results will facilitate future genome-wide association studies and investigations into genomic targets of selection.
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Pirault, P., Danvy, S., Verrier, E., & Leroy, G. (2013). Genetic Structure and Gene Flows within Horses: A Genealogical Study at the French Population Scale. Plos One, 8(4), e61544.
Abstract: Since horse breeds constitute populations submitted to variable and multiple outcrossing events, we analyzed the genetic structure and gene flows considering horses raised in France. We used genealogical data, with a reference population of 547,620 horses born in France between 2002 and 2011, grouped according to 55 breed origins. On average, individuals had 6.3 equivalent generations known. Considering different population levels, fixation index decreased from an overall species FIT of 1.37%, to an average of -0.07% when considering the 55 origins, showing that most horse breeds constitute populations without genetic structure. We illustrate the complexity of gene flows existing among horse breeds, a few populations being closed to foreign influence, most, however, being submitted to various levels of introgression. In particular, Thoroughbred and Arab breeds are largely used as introgression sources, since those two populations explain together 26% of founder origins within the overall horse population. When compared with molecular data, breeds with a small level of coancestry also showed low genetic distance; the gene pool of the breeds was probably impacted by their reproducer exchanges.
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