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McLean, A. N. (2004). The mental processes of the horse and their consequences for training. Animal Welfare Science Centre, .
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Álvarez, I., Royo, L. J., Pérez-Pardal, L., Fernández, I., Lorenzo, L., & Goyache, F. (). Assessing diversity losses due to selection for coat colour in the endangered bay-Asturcón pony using microsatellites. Livest Sci, In Press, Corrected Proof.
Abstract: The bay-Asturcón pony (A21) population recovery started recently. A total of 297 samples (180 from founder individuals) belonging to the A21 population were genotyped for: a) a set of 15 microsatellites; and b) the presence of the two recessive chestnut alleles reported in the literature (e and ea) on the MC1r gene (locus Extension) and the deletion on the ASIP gene (locus Agouti) associated with recessive black coat in horses. The extent to which the genetic variability of the A21 population could be affected by selection strategies aimed at decreasing the frequency of the chestnut allele was quantified in terms of gene diversity and allelic richness. The possible genetic impact of a controlled introgression of A21 offspring into the black-coated Asturcón (A20) population was also assessed using 261 available A20 genotypes. The wild alleles for the Extension and Agouti loci (E and A, respectively) were the most frequent (77.8% and 59.4%) in the A21 population. Both the e and ea recessive chestnut alleles were identified with frequencies of 21.2% and 1.0%. As expected, the contribution to overall diversity of the founder subpopulation was always higher than that of the A21 offspring subpopulation. Total contribution of the offspring subpopulation to overall allelic richness was negative (- 1.84%), showing that all their alleles were present in the founder subpopulation. Although favourable, the chestnut carrier individuals had poor contributions to overall gene diversity and tended to have negative contributions to allelic richness. The elimination of the chestnut carrier A21 individuals would not affect genetic variability to a significant extent. Therefore, efforts for preserving the genetic variability in the A21 population could focus on a careful planning of matings between individuals free of the recessive chestnut alleles. The expected influence of a controlled introgression of A21 offspring on the genetic variability of the A20 population was always favourable. The gene diversity of the introgressed population was higher than that of the original A20 population for both gene diversity (GDT = -1.2% ± 0.04%) and, particularly, allelic richness (CT = 4.9% ± 0.27%). Very limited gene flow may increase the number of alleles of the A20 population but also would yield a balance of the allelic frequencies at a population level. Therefore, a common breeding policy for the two Asturcón pony populations may ensure the viability of this prominent genetic resource.
Keywords: Conservation; MC1r; Asip; Gene diversity; Allelic richness
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Górecka-Bruzda, A., Chruszczewski, M. H., Jezierski, T., & Murphy, J. (). Behaviour-related traits of Polish sport horse stallions participating in 100-day performance tests. Livest Sci, In Press, Corrected Proof.
Abstract: Sport horse studbooks frequently use performance tests to identify, evaluate and approve stallions for future breeding programmes. The aim of this study was to analyse behaviour-related traits of Polish Warmblood stallions participating in studbook 100-day performance tests. Both relatedness and differences of traits and their contribution to overall variability were analysed. Three-year-old stallions (n = 374) participated in 100-day performance test programmes at two Polish training stations from 2004 to 2008. Traits including character, temperament and trainability (trainer rated), free-jumping, jumping under the rider, walk, trot and canter (independently rated by both trainer and the selection jury) and jumping ability, dressage-ability and rideability (rated by the independent test rider) were subjected to Factor Analysis (FA) with varimax rotation. The FA produced three factors [Cooperation (Cp), Jumping Potential (JP) and Dressage Potential (DP)] with eigenvalues > 1, which accounted for 64.6% of the total variance of the traits examined. After rotation, the factors represented Cp: 23.2.0%, JP: 21.5% and DP: 19.8% of variance respectively. The traits of character, temperament, trainability, jumping under the rider, rideability, dressage and jumping abilities had high loadings on the second factor (Cp) and thereafter, the assessment of all behaviour-related traits contributed to the general evaluation with approximately one-fifth of total variability. The findings may indicate that successful sport careers for any horse may be much more closely associated with willingness to cooperate with the rider and riding and handling behaviour, than to the horse's actual physical performance potential. It would appear that only so-called sport-suitable performance of the horse is being selected for in performance tests (during jumping and dressage suitability testing). This approach may be short-sighted and inadequate with serious implications for horse under-performance in leisure activities notwithstanding general horse welfare within the disciplines of equitation.
Keywords: Horse; 100-day performance tests; Behaviour; Temperament; Factor Analysis
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Søndergaard, E., Jensen, M. B., & Nicol, C. J. (). Motivation for social contact in horses measured by operant conditioning. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., In Press, Corrected Proof.
Abstract: Although horses are social animals they are often housed individually with limited social contact to other horses and this may compromise their welfare. The present study included eight young female horses and investigated the strength of motivation for access to full social contact, head contact and muzzle contact, respectively, to a familiar companion horse. Horses were housed individually next to their companion horse and separations between pens prevented physical contact. During daily test sessions horses were brought to a test area where they could access an arena allowing social contact. Arena access during 3 min was given after completion of a predetermined number of responses on a panel. Fixed ratios (FR) of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 responses per arena access were applied in a random order, one per daily test session, within each test week (Monday to Friday), and the number of rewards per daily test session was recorded. All horses could access all three types of social contact in a cross-over design, and an empty arena was used as control. Motivational strength was assessed using elasticity of demand functions, which were estimated based on the number of rewards earned and FR. Elasticities of demand for the three types of social contact were low (-0.20), and not significantly different, although increasing FR still resulted in a decrease in rewards obtained for all three types of social contact (P < 0.001). Across FR-levels horses earned more rewards for social contact than for an empty arena, as shown by much higher intercept values (2.51 vs. 0.99; P < 0.001). However, the elasticity of demand for infrequent access to an empty arena (-0.08) was lower than for social contact (P < 0.01) and not significantly different from zero (P = 0.07). Horses performed more social behaviour the lesser the restriction on social contact (full > head > muzzle). However, the finding that horses showed a similar and high motivation for all three types of social contact suggests that they are valued equally highly in a situation where the alternative is no social contact.
Keywords: Horse; Housing; Social behaviour; Operant conditioning; Motivation
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Górecka-Bruzda, A., Jastrzebska, E., Sosnowska, Z., Jaworski, Z., Jezierski, T., & Chruszczewski, M. H. (). Reactivity to humans and fearfulness tests: Field validation in Polish Cold Blood Horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., In Press, Corrected Proof.
Abstract: The aim of the present paper was to examine in field conditions the feasibility of the experimentally developed behavioural tests for assessment of two temperamental traits of cold blood horses: fearfulness and reactivity to humans. The predictive, convergent and discriminant validity of the tests was evaluated. Fifty-three Polish Cold Blood Horses (CBHs) were tested with the battery of behavioural tests involving passive and active contact with humans, handling, startling, novel object and surface tests. The behaviour of horses in real, on-farm conditions was evaluated with the caretaker's questionnaire (CQ). The tests demonstrated that a non-startling object and unforced human manipulations were willingly accepted by horses. In contrast, the horses were more reluctant to interact spontaneously with humans and showed longer persistence of a withdrawal reaction when presented with a startling stimulus or when restrained. CQ confirmed the common opinion of calmness, patience and good manageability of the CBHs. The results of behavioural tests were correlated with the scores derived from factor analysis of the CQ. Moreover, the majority of tests measures were correlated within reactivity to humans (median rs = 0.56) and fear tests (median rs = 0.41). Thus, predictive and convergent validity of the employed tests has been confirmed. However, reactivity to humans and fear measures were also correlated (median rs = 0.36), therefore discriminant validity of the tests used has been not confirmed. Therefore, we suggest that the parameters of tests designed to measure two separate traits: reactivity to humans and fearfulness, measured in fact avoidance of potential harm and withdrawal behaviour. Although selection for the work-appropriate behaviour is almost nonexistent nowadays, we conclude that Polish Cold Blood Horses are still predisposed for disciplines of equitation and driving, which demand an easy to handle horse. Nonetheless, we recommend behavioural testing of horses when approving for breeding. For this purpose, we can confirm usefulness of the experimentally developed tests in field assessment of general behavioural reactivity of horses.
Keywords: Cold blood horse; Temperament; Reactivity; Behavioural tests; Questionnaire; Validity
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Birke, L., Hockenhull, J., Creighton, E., Pinno, L., Mee, J., & Mills, D. (). Horses' responses to variation in human approach. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., In Press, Corrected Proof.
Abstract: The behaviour of humans around horses is thought to have a substantial impact on how people are perceived in subsequent interactions and many horse trainers give detailed advice on how handlers should behave when initially approaching a loose horse. Here we report on three studies designed to explore the effect of different human approach styles on the behaviour of naïve and experienced horses. In the first study, the change in flight distance (distance at which horses started to avoid an approaching human) of twelve semi-feral Dartmoor ponies, undergoing training to allow handling, was assessed. Over the 10 handling sessions median flight distance decreased significantly (p < 0.001) from 2.38 m to 0.00 m and there was a significant positive shift in the ponies' behaviour following the appearance of the researcher (p = 0.002). In a second study the effect of a direct (vigorous, swinging a lead rope and with eye contact) versus indirect (relaxed, no rope swinging and without eye contact) approach style was assessed on six adult experienced riding horses. The mean flight distance during a direct approach style (6.87 m) was significantly greater than that which occurred during an indirect approach style (2.32 m). Direction of approach was not found to significantly affect flight distance. In a third study, the effect of the rope was removed and a similar method to the second study applied to a group of naïve, feral ponies. The effect of different components of approach style, speed of approach, handler body posture and direction of gaze, which might contribute to observed differences in behavioural responses, were then examined systematically in this population. This revealed no significant difference in mean flight distance between the two approach styles (2.28 m indirect versus 2.37 m direct approach), but ponies were significantly more likely to move off in trot (p = 0.025) and to travel further (p = 0.001) when a direct approach was used. Speed of approach was the most salient factor, with a fast approach increasing both the tendency to move off in trot (p < 0.001) and distance travelled (p < 0.001). Body posture (relaxed or tense) had no effect, while flight distance was significantly greater when the person was looking away (p = 0.045). These results suggest horses may have an important egocentric spatial barrier, which perhaps relates to personal space and triggering of the flight response. Contrary to popular belief, body posture did not appear to be very important in the contexts examined unless accompanied by extraneous aids, while the speed of approach is particularly significant. These results are of important practical relevance in reducing the risk of injury, and the effective management of horses with minimal stress.
Keywords: Horse; Flight response; Human approach; Body posture; Approach speed; Natural horsemanship
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Klingel, H.. (2012). Social Organisation and Social Behaviour of the Equids. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: In contrast to the great similarity in behaviour and ecology of the 6 extant Equid species, 2 distinct types of social organisation have evolved, and both are adapted to life in semi-arid to arid regions where environmental conditions force them to migrate seasonally or opportunistically.
The ranges of the various species overlap: Mountain Zebra Equus zebra and Plains Zebra E. quagga in South Africa and Namibia, Plains Zebra and Grevy's Zebra E. grevyi in Kenya and Ethiopia, Grevy's Zebra and African Wild Ass E. africanus in Ethiopia, Asiatic Wild Ass E. hemionus and Przewalski Horse E. przewalski in Mongolia and China. Although, in the overlap zones, individuals of the different species are using the same resources like water and grazing next to each other, they rarely make closer contacts. . In the type 1 species, Horse, Plains Zebra and Mountain Zebra, the adults live in non-territorial, stable, one-male families and as single bachelors and in bachelor groups. Family stallions have the exclusive mating rights with the mares in their harems. These consist of up to 6 unrelated mares plus their offspring, totalling up to 20 members. Mares stay in their harem until death. Stallions' tenure is from age 5-6 years, i.e. when they succeed in controlling a harem, for close to life time, but are replaced when dead or incapacitated. Harems are stable even in the absence of a stallion, indicating voluntary membership. Adolescent mares leave their parental families to become members of another harem. In Plains Zebra the adolescent mares are abducted, during an oestrus, by suitors who fight the defending family stallion/father. Successful stallions are bachelors who start a family, or family stallions enlarging their harem. Young stallions leave their parental families voluntarily at age 2-3 years and join bachelor stallion groups from where the family stallions are recruited. An individualised dominance hierarchy excists with the stallion in the alpha position. It is based on individual knowledge and recognition of the members. In the type 2 species Grevy's Zebra, African Wild Ass and Asiatic Wild Ass adult stallions monopolise territories in which they have the exclusive mating rights. Stallions are tolerant of any conspecifics entering their territory. Bachelor stallions behave subordinately – or fight for the possession of the territory which is a prerequisite for reproduction. Mares join up to form anonymous and unstable groups or herds. The only stable unit is of a mare and her offspring. In Grevy's Zebra mares with foal join preferentially conspecifics of the same soial status, as do mares without foal. Matings take place inside the territory. There is no lasting relationship of the mare with a particular stallion, and the mare may be mated by any stallion whose territory she is visiting. Territories measure up to 10 or more square kilometres, and tenure is for several years. Grevy Zebra territorial owners leave their territories for a few hours to visit a water hole, or for months when grazing and water conditions are below requirements, and re-occupy it upon return, unchallenged. |
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Klingel, H.. (2012). Soziale Organisation und Sozialverhalten der Equiden. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Verhalten und Ökologie der 6 rezenten Equiden sind in vieler Hinsicht identisch, jedoch in der Sozialen Organisation haben 2 deutliche verschiedene Formen evoluiert, die beide an das Leben in den semi-ariden und ariden Lebensräumen angepasst sind, wo sie zu säsonalen oder opportunistischen Wanderungen gezwungen sind.
Die Verbreitungsgebiete der verschiedenen Arten überlappen, in Südafrika und Namibia von Bergzebra Equus zebra und Steppenzebra E. quagga, in Kenya und Äthiopien von Steppenzebra und Grevy-Zebra E. grevyi, in Äthipien und Somalia von Grevy-Zebra und Afrikanischem Wildesel E. africanus, in China und der Mongolei Asiatischer Wildesel E. hemionus und Przewalski-Pferd E. przewalskii. Obwohl die Vertreter der verschiedenen Arten in den Überschneidungsgebieten die gleichen Ressourcen wie Wasser und Weide nutzen, nehmen sie kaum Kontakt zueinander auf. Die Vertreter von Typ 1, Steppenzebra Equus quagga, Bergzebra E..zebra, Pferd E przewalskii, leben in nicht-territorialen , dauerhaften 1- Hengst- Familien, in Hengstgruppen und als Einzelgänger.. Die Familienhengste haben die alleinigen Paarungsrechte mit den Stuten in ihrem Harem. Dieser besteht aus bis zu ca. 6 nicht-verwandten Stuten nebst ihren Nachkommen und kann bis 20 Mitglieder haben. Stuten bleiben bis zu ihrem Tod im Harem..Hengste können mit 5-6 Jahren einen Harem erobern oder gründen, können gleichfalls bis zum Tod die Familie begleiten, werden aber meist vorher von einem anderen Hengst ersetzt. Harems sind auch ohne Hengst stabil, ein Hinweis, dass die Stuten freiwilling im Harem sind und bleiben.. Junge Stuten verlassen ihre elterliche Familie und schliessen sich einem anderen Harem an..Beim Steppenzebra werden die Jungstuten während eines Östrus (Rosse) von Bewerbern entführt, gegen den Widerstand des Familenhengstes = Vaters. Bewerber sind Junggesellen, die so eine Familie gründen, und Familienhengste, die so ihren Harem vergrössern. Junghengste verlassen mit 2-3Jahren ihre elterliche Familie und schliessen sich Jungesellengruppen an, aus denen sich die Familenhengste rekrutieren. In der Gruppe besteht eine Rangordnung mit dem Henst in der alpha-Position. Sie beruht aud individuellem Kennen und Erkennen der Mitglieder. Bei Typ 2, Grevy-Zebra, Afrikanischer und Asiatischer Wildesel, monopolisieren Hengste über Jahre Territorien von 10 und mehr km2 , in denen sie die alleinigen Paarungsrechte haben. Territoriale Hengste tolerieren Artgenossen, auch erwachsene Hengste, soweit diese sich unterlegen verhalten. Oder sie stellen sich zum Kampf um den Besitz des Territoriums, eine Vorbedingung für die Fortpflanzung. Stuten im Östrus können von mehreren Hengsten begattet werden, wenn sie sich in deren Territorien aufhalten bzw diese durchwandern. Stuten und Fohlen und nicht-territoriale Hengste schliessen sich zu anonymen instabilen Gruppen oder Herden zusammen. Feste dauerhafte Bindungen bestehen nur zwischen Stute und Fohlen. Hengste verlassen ihr Territorium für Stunden, Tage, im Extrem auch Monate, um zu Wasserstellen oder Weidegründen zu ziehen, sind aber bei Rückkehr wieder unangefochtene Besitzer. |
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Hartmann, E., Søndergaard, E., & Keeling, L. J. Keeping horses in groups: A review. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., .
Abstract: Although husbandry conditions for horses have improved over the last decades, many horses are still kept singly with limited or no physical contact to other horses. This is surprising, given the fact that keeping horses in groups is recognised best to fulfil their physical and behavioural needs, especially their need for social contact with conspecifics, as well as to have a beneficial effect on horse–human interactions during training. Group housing of farm animals is widely applied in practice. As a consequence, scientists have investigated numerous aspects of group housing to help further improve animal welfare and human–animal interactions under these conditions. However, compared to this literature available in farm animals, and the plentiful studies conducted of feral horse populations, there is much less done when it comes to the management of horses kept in groups in the domestic environment. In particular, limited scientific information is available into the effect of group size and group composition on behaviour and methods of introducing new horses into established groups, even though problems related to social integration are repeatedly taken as arguments against keeping horses in groups. This review, therefore, aims to provide an overview of the current scientific knowledge regarding keeping horses in groups. Furthermore, it aims to give insight into whether or not some of the concerns related to keeping horses in groups are justified and to review scientifically based solutions that could be useful in practice to improve horse welfare and human safety.
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Noy, L., Dekel, E., & Alon, U. (2011). The mirror game as a paradigm for studying the dynamics of two people improvising motion together. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, .
Abstract: Joint improvisation is the creative action of two or more people without a script or designated leader. Examples include improvisational theater and music, and day-to-day activities such as conversations. In joint improvisation, novel action is created, emerging from the interaction between people. Although central to creative processes and social interaction, joint improvisation remains largely unexplored due to the lack of experimental paradigms. Here we introduce a paradigm based on a theater practice called the mirror game. We measured the hand motions of two people mirroring each other at high temporal and spatial resolution. We focused on expert actors and musicians skilled in joint improvisation. We found that players can jointly create novel complex motion without a designated leader, synchronized to less than 40 ms. In contrast, we found that designating one player as leader deteriorated performance: The follower showed 2–3 Hz oscillation around the leader's smooth trajectory, decreasing synchrony and reducing the range of velocities reached. A mathematical model suggests a mechanism for these observations based on mutual agreement on future motion in mirrored reactive–predictive controllers. This is a step toward understanding the human ability to create novelty by improvising together.
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