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Piggins, D., & Phillips, C. J. C. (1998). Awareness in domesticated animals--concepts and definitions. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 57(3-4), 181–200.
Abstract: Humans will probably never experience the awareness of another species, but adopting a broad concept of awareness leads to the conclusion that other species have some awareness. The existence of a more complex mind in humans, compared with other species, leads some to suggest that awareness only exists in humans. We postulate that humans possess a significantly increased level of awareness, facilitated in particular by the acquisition of language, but that generally animals possess a level of awareness that is appropriate to their needs. Categories of awareness can be devised by identifying levels, such as are used in the identification of the conscious state in humans, or by ranking states of awareness in order of complexity. A scheme is proposed that combines these two approaches, which is considered suitable for use with domesticated animals. The advantages of identifying awareness as being sensation-, perception- or cognition-based are discussed, as well as the possibility of a scheme based on the degree and site of CNS processing. Finally, the acquisition of awareness by learning and inheritance is considered, and it is argued that in variable environments, animals will evolve increased awareness, whereas in very stable environments the energetic cost of awareness will encourage the evolution of less aware animals.
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Cozzi, A., Sighieri, C., Gazzano, A., Nicol, C. J., & Baragli, P. (2010). Post-conflict friendly reunion in a permanent group of horses (Equus caballus). Behav. Process., 85(2), 185–190.
Abstract: Gregarious animals living in permanent social groups experience intra-group competition. Conflicts over resources can escalate into costly aggression and, in some conditions, non-dispersive forms of conflict resolution may be favoured. Post-conflict friendly reunions, hence reconciliation, have been described in a variety of species. The aim of this study was to explore, for the first time, the occurrence of reconciliation in a group of domestic horses (Equus caballus) and learn more about strategies used to maintain group cohesion. The behaviour of seven horses living as permanent group in an enclosure for at least 2 years was observed by video for 108 h from June to August 2007. We used a Post-Conflict/Matched Control method to assess the existence of reconciliation and third-party affiliation. Behaviours recorded Post-Conflict, or during Matched Control periods, were classified as affiliative based on previous descriptions of visual communication patterns in horses. The proportion of attracted pairs over total post-conflict situations was significantly greater than the proportion of dispersed pairs, both during dyadic interactions (p < 0.001) and during triadic interactions (p = 0.002). The results of the present study show that both dyadic reconciliation and third-party post-conflict affiliative interactions form important social mechanisms for managing post-conflict situations in horses.
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Kotrschal, K., Schöberl, I., Bauer, B., Thibeaut, A. - M., & Wedl, M. (2009). Dyadic relationships and operational performance of male and female owners and their male dogs. Behav. Process., 81(3), 383–391.
Abstract: In the paper we investigate how owner personality, attitude and gender influence dog behavior, dyadic practical functionality and the level of dog salivary cortisol. In three meetings, 12 female and 10 male owners of male dogs answered questionnaires including the Neo-FFI human personality inventory. Their dyadic behavior was video-taped in a number of test situations, and saliva samples were collected. Owners who scored highly in neuroticism (Neo-FFI dimension one) viewed their dogs as social supporters and spent much time with them. Their dogs had low baseline cortisol levels, but such dyads were less successful in the operational task. Owners who scored highly in extroversion (Neo-FFI dimension two) appreciated shared activities with their dogs which had relatively high baseline cortisol values. Dogs that had female owners were less sociable-active (dog personality axis 1) than dogs that had male owners. Therefore, it appears that owner gender and personality influences dyadic interaction style, dog behavior and dyadic practical functionality.
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Murphy, J., & Arkins, S. (2007). Equine learning behaviour. Behav. Process., 76(1), 1–13.
Abstract: Scientists and equestrians continually seek to achieve a clearer understanding of equine learning behaviour and its implications for training. Behavioural and learning processes in the horse are likely to influence not only equine athletic success but also the usefulness of the horse as a domesticated species. However given the status and commercial importance of the animal, equine learning behaviour has received only limited investigation. Indeed most experimental studies on equine cognitive function to date have addressed behaviour, learning and conceptualisation processes at a moderately basic cognitive level compared to studies in other species. It is however, likely that the horses with the greatest ability to learn and form/understand concepts are those, which are better equipped to succeed in terms of the human-horse relationship and the contemporary training environment. Within equitation generally, interpretation of the behavioural processes and training of the desired responses in the horse are normally attempted using negative reinforcement strategies. On the other hand, experimental designs to actually induce and/or measure equine learning rely almost exclusively on primary positive reinforcement regimes. Employing two such different approaches may complicate interpretation and lead to difficulties in identifying problematic or undesirable behaviours in the horse. The visual system provides the horse with direct access to immediate environmental stimuli that affect behaviour but vision in the horse is of yet not fully investigated or understood. Further investigations of the equine visual system will benefit our understanding of equine perception, cognitive function and the subsequent link with learning and training. More detailed comparative investigations of feral or free-ranging and domestic horses may provide useful evidence of attention, stress and motivational issues affecting behavioural and learning processes in the horse. The challenge for scientists is, as always, to design and commission experiments that will investigate and provide insight into these processes in a manner that withstands scientific scrutiny.
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Heitor, F., do Mar Oom, M., & Vicente, L. (2006). Social relationships in a herd of Sorraia horses: Part II. Factors affecting affiliative relationships and sexual behaviours. Behav. Process., 73(3), 231–239.
Abstract: The influence of age, dominance rank, kinship and aggressiveness over affiliative relationships and sexual behaviours were analysed in a herd of Sorraia horses, Equus caballus, kept under extensive management. Subjects were 10 adult mares 5-18 years old that had known each other since birth, and a stallion introduced into the group for breeding for the first time. Kinship coefficient and dominance rank were the most important factors affecting affiliative relationships. Bonds were reciprocal and stronger among mares with higher kinship. Mares spent more time in proximity to close-ranking and lower-ranking females. Mares with stronger affiliative relationships or higher relatedness were not less aggressive towards each other. Affiliative relationships between the stallion and the mares were not reciprocal: lower-ranking mares formed stronger bonds with the stallion but he preferred the less genetically related mares for proximity. However, the stallion was involved in sexual behaviours more frequently with the mares that were more genetically related to him. These results suggest that kinship beyond close relatives may affect affiliative relationships both among familiar and among unfamiliar horses. However, the influence of kinship does not imply that horses possess a kin recognition system and alternative explanations are discussed.
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Foster, T. M., Temple, W., Cameron, B., & Poling, A. (1997). Demand curves for food in hens: Similarity under fixed-ratio and progressive-ratio schedules. Behav. Process., 39(2), 177–185.
Abstract: Demand curves were generated for five domestic hens under progressive-ratio 5 schedules of food delivery and under fixed-ratio schedules of food delivery that began at fixed-ratio 5 and were incremented by 5 each session. All sessions ended after 10 consecutive minutes without a response. Although response rates at a given ratio were higher under the progressive-ratio schedule, all hens completed higher ratios under the fixed-ratio schedule. Similar, but not identical, demand curves were generated under progressive-ratio and fixed-ratio schedules. Under both schedules, consumption (reinforcers earned) decreased as cost (ratio size) increased. Data generally were well described by an equation in which elasticity of demand is constant, although an equation in which elasticity could vary accounted for slightly more of the variance.
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Dugatkin, L. A., & Bekoff, M. (2003). Play and the evolution of fairness: a game theory model. Behav. Process., 60(3), 209–214.
Abstract: Bekoff [J. Consci. Stud. 8 (2001) 81] argued that mammalian social play is a useful behavioral phenotype on which to concentrate in order to learn more about the evolution of fairness. Here, we build a game theoretical model designed to formalize some of the ideas laid out by Bekoff, and to examine whether `fair' strategies can in fact be evolutionarily stable. The models we present examine fairness at two different developmental stages during an individual's ontogeny, and hence we create four strategies--fair at time 1/fair at time 2, not fair at time 1/not fair at time 2, fair at time 1/not fair at time 2, not fair at time 1/fair at time 2. Our results suggest that when considering species where fairness can be expressed during two different developmental stages, acting fairly should be more common than never acting fairly. In addition, when no one strategy was evolutionarily stable, we found that all four strategies we model can coexist at evolutionary equilibrium. Even in the absence of an overwhelming database from which to test our model, the general predictions we make have significant implications for the evolution of fairness.
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Robinson, T. A., Foster, T. M., Temple, W., & Poling, A. (1995). Performance of domestic hens under progressive-ratio schedules of food delivery. Behav. Process., 34(3), 233–239.
Abstract: Domestic hens were exposed to progressive-ratio 2 and progressive-ratio 10 schedules of food delivery with different initial ratios (2, 10, 20, 30, and 40). Breaking points, defined as the largest ratios completed before responding ceased for 600 consecutive seconds, were recorded under all conditions. In general, breaking points were higher under the PR 10 schedule than under the PR 2 schedule, and the value of the initial ratio did not systematically affect the breaking point. The former finding suggests that relative satiation affected breaking points in the present study, but the latter finding suggests that the primary determinant was the `price' of the reinforcer, defined in terms of the number of responses required to produce it. Breaking points were similar under conditions where initial ratios changed from session to session and under more conventional conditions, where initial ratios remained unchanged over several sessions.
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Foster, T. M., Matthews, L. R., Temple, W., & Poling, A. (1997). Concurrent schedule performance in domestic goats: persistent undermatching. Behav. Process., 40(3), 231–237.
Abstract: Performance of nine domestic goats responding under concurrent variable-interval variable-interval schedules of food delivery was examined, with results analyzed in terms of the generalized matching equation. Substantial undermatching of response and time allocation ratios to obtained reinforcement ratios was evident. Post-reinforcement pause time ratios approximately matched obtained reinforcement ratios. Subtracting these times from total time allocation values yielded net time allocation ratios, which undermatched obtained reinforcement ratios to a greater degree than whole-session time allocation ratios. Slopes of regression lines relating behavioral outputs to environmental inputs characteristically were below 0.6, which is similar to previous findings in dairy cows tested under comparable conditions.
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Wolff, A., Hausberger, M., & Le Scolan, N. (1997). Experimental tests to assess emotionality in horses. Behav. Process., 40(3), 209–221.
Abstract: Different tests were used to assess different aspects of the emotionality of 1-3 year-old horses: arena test; a [`]novel object' test; and a handling test. In reaction to the test situations no important differences were observed according to age or sex in the behaviour patterns, but clear individual differences were observed within these classes. The arena test seemed to reveal the degree of gregariousness of the animals whereas the results in the two other tests were correlated and seemed to reflect an inherent degree of fearfulness in the horse. Indices were developed that enabled to rank the animals, by taking into account all behaviour patterns shown. Such individual characteristics might have some genetic basis: half-siblings tended to behave the same way in most cases.
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