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McGreevy, P. D., & Rogers, L. J. (2005). Motor and sensory laterality in thoroughbred horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 92(4), 337–352.
Abstract: We investigated lateralisation in horses because it is likely to be important in training and athletic performance. Thoroughbred horses (n = 106) were observed every 60 s for 2 h, when they were at pasture, and the position of the forelimbs in relation to one another was recorded. There was a population bias skewed to standing with the left forelimb advanced over the right (i.e. directional lateralisation). Using the first 50 observations, the distribution of preferences was 43 significantly left, 10 significantly right with 53 being non-significant (i.e. ambidextextrous). The strength of motor bias increased with age, suggesting maturation or an influence of training. The horses were also presented with an olfactory stimulus (stallion faeces) to score the tendency to use one nostril rather than the other. A significant preference to use the right nostril first was shown in horses under 4 years of age (n = 61) but not in older horses. Of the 157 horses tested for nostril bias, 76 had been assessed for motor bias and so were used for analysis of the relationship between laterality in the two modalities. There was no significant relationship between direction of foreleg motor bias and first nostril used, total number of inhalations or laterality index of nostril use. The absence of a correlation between laterality of nostril use and motor bias indicates that lateralisation of the equine brain occurs on at least two levels of neural organisation--sensory and motor--a finding that is consistent with other examples of lateralisation in species that have been examined in more detail.
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Simpson, B. S. (2002). Neonatal foal handling. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 78(2-4), 303–317.
Abstract: Recent interest has focused on the advantage of intensively handling young foals as a means of producing more tractable horses, accustomed to humans and receptive to training. To date, the effect of this intensive handling, dubbed “imprint training” in the popular literature, has not been tested. The present study compares seven foals handled intensively as neonates with eight untreated controls. The handling protocol started from 2-8 h after birth and continued daily for a total of 5 days. The protocol consisted of a series of stimuli and experiences that were each repeated until the foal no longer resisted or reacted negatively. Subsequently, foals were tested before weaning, at 4 months of age. Results indicated that handled foals (HF) ranked higher than control foals (CF) in subjective ratings of calmness (*P<0.0117) and friendliness (*P<0.0001) and in several specific handling tasks (venipuncture *P<0.0220; placing in stock *P<0.0128). Although, in approach tests all foals but one allowed approach of a person to 4 m, significantly more HF approached the person than CF (P<0.0080). In stimulus tests, foals were presented specific stimuli to which they had been tested as neonates. Two of eight CF were too unruly and dangerous to test. Of foals that could be tested, CF required significantly more time to hook-up a heart rate monitor (**P<0.0055). Split-plot analysis indicated that HF had lower heart rates to initial left-sided stimuli, presented first, than CF (*P<0.0421). In response to right-sided stimuli, heart rate scores of CF were not significantly different from HF (P<0.2259), suggesting reduced reactivity over time due to a learning effect. Behavioral responses to specific stimuli did not differ between CF and HF, suggesting that neonatal handling has a general rather than specific effect on subsequent behavior. Cortisol concentrations were measured before and after testing and the difference calculated. All foals had higher post-testing levels than pre-testing levels. There was a significant difference between HF and CF, indicating greater reactivity among the CF (*P<0.050). In general, the results indicated that foals handled as neonates were more tractable and less reactive. Specific neonatal handling tasks, such as sticking a finger up the foal's nose or patting the bottom of the foot, seemed to have no beneficial effect on related tasks such as passing a nasogastric tube or tapping with a farrier's hammer at 4 months of age. Mechanisms for the observed effect of neonatal handling require further investigation.
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Bartosova, J., Dvorakova, R., Vancatova, M., & Svobodova, I. (2008). Comprehension of human pointing gesture in domestic horses: Effect of training method. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Horses have been considered to rely on human gesticular cues (McKinley and Sambrook 2000, Anim Cogn 3:13-22; and recently Maros et al. 2008, Anim Cogn 11:457-466), however large variability among individuals tested in two-ways object choice tasks was found. Part of the horses in those studies (40 and 26 %, respectively) even failed to pass adequately through the training session which preceded the testing phase and served to learn a horse to carry out a task. Therefore, we alternated the experimental design designed by McKinley and Sambrook (reduced number of testing trials to 10 per horse to keep its attention, applied just one, a dynamic-sustained pointing cue with touching the bucket, etc.), and tested an effect of training method, sex, age, and learning on proportion of correct choices. We hypothesised, that horses trained by “traditional” method (TTM) will get lower score than those experienced with “horsemanship-based” methods (HTM), being characterized by closer and more frequent human-horse contact and also extended exercising “from the ground” with frequent using of arms cues. Despite simplification of the methods, only about 60 % of tested horses passed through the training phase (i.e., learned to come to and upturn the bucket with hidden treat). Successful completion of training phase was reached regardless of age or sex of a horse, but by the training method; HTM horses ran better compared to TTM ones. No significant effect of age, sex, or learning (i.e., trial order within all 10), and training method as well was found on proportion of correct trials in the testing phase. Horses made a correct choice in more than 70% of trials. Individual scores ranged from 50 to 100 %. In conclusion, horses showed high level of comprehension of human pointing gesture, regardless of their sex or age. No effects of training method or learning process within a test suggest low impact of handling and learning on the level of comprehension at least of the most vivid human pointing gesture. Horses trained by methods based on “natural human-horse communication” did enhance cooperation with people.
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Visser, E. K., Ellis, A. D., Rijksen, L., Van Reenen, C. G., & VanDierendonck, M. (2008). Effect of training method on response of horses to a human approach test. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: The human-horse relationship forms an essential component in the diversity of todays use of horses. The reactions of horses to interactions with humans are mostly the result of interplay between their own temperament; the temperament and skills of the human and their previous experience – with humans. Moreover, the understanding of the human-horse relationship may improve the welfare of horses and humans. Nowadays, “sympathetic” training methods are gaining tremendous attention of horse owners. In the “sympathetic” training method the focus lies on the use of body language in human-horse communication, as well as respecting the horses natural needs. With 28 horses the effect of a “sympathetic” training method versus a conventional training method on the horse“s response on a human-approach test was studied. Fourteen horses of 3.5 years of age were subjected to a five week training period with a conventional training method, the other fourteen horses were subjected to a ”sympathetic“ training method. The overall frequency of snorting during the human approach tests decreased on average from 4.4 (± 1.1) before the training period to 3.1 (± 0.9) after the training period (both groups). However, there was a significant (p=0.006) difference between training methods: the horses trained in the ”sympathetic“ method decreased snorting by 4.3 (±1.1) while the horses trained in the conventional method increased with 1.5 (±0.9). While horses trained in the conventional method whinnied less in the second human approach test, horses trained in the ”sympathetic“ method whinnied more after the period of training. This difference was found to be significant (p=0.006). Defecating decreased over time, but was not different between training methods. The frequency of touching the unfamiliar handler increased over time for both training methods. The horses trained in a conventional method increased from 1.5 to 2.5 and for the sympathetic trained horses from 1.9 to 3.7. This increase was not significantly different for the training methods. Heart rate showed a minor decrease between the human approach tests (before training period 85.3 bpm, after training period 74.3 bpm) but there were no significant differences between training methods. Similarly, there was a slight increase in heart rate variability (rmssd: from 37.0 to 45.2), but no significant differences between training methods. Overal it was concluded that horses trained with this ”sympathetic“ method tended to be more trustful and less stressful in the presence of an (unfamiliar) human compared to horses trained with a conventional method. This may have been due to reduced stress during horse-human contact in the ”sympathetic" training method used. The long term effects on the welfare of the horses, still needs to be investigated.
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De Giorgio, F., & Schoorl, J. M. (2012). Why isolate during training? Social learning and social cognition applied as training approach for young horses (Equus caballus). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: In the last decade an increasing number of studies has been oriented towards equine social learning and their social behavior within the herd (Kruger‚ 2006-2008). In social species, social learning is important to learn and gain useful skills to move and live in their own social and environmental context. Group housing has been recognized as an important element to fulfill the physical and behavioral needs of horses, especially their need for social contact (Søndergaard‚ 2011). Still‚ when it comes to horse training, the social aspect and‚ in general‚ cognitive abilities of the horse are rarely taken into account. Although it is widely accepted that social isolation is stressful for horse (Mal et al, 1991a and 1991b) still isolating a young horse is the first step when it comes to training methods. Due to tradition and culture and our performance-oriented society it is both difficult to accept and apply a different social/cognitive training approach. Training sessions are focused on immediate results whereas in cognitive learning part of the process is latent and will not be visible immediately‚ but taking the cognitive skills into account plays an important role in avoiding tension both in the horse as in the human-horse interaction (Baragli and De Giorgio, 2011). In this study we tested the possibility to apply social learning by creating a social environment‚ favoring a cognitive learning approach‚ for the training of six young horses. The group existed in three males and three females, between two and three years old. All six showed initial difficulties and defense to human interaction. They were housed in two groups in adjacent spacious paddocks where they had ample opportunity to move and express their individual and social behavioral repertoire. Each horse had one training session per week without isolating it from the others. The training sessions were held following a cognitive-relational model defined as the equine-zooanthropologic approach (De Giorgio, 2010 – Marchesini, 2011). The learning objectives were to be able to handle each horse‚ conduct it‚ saddle and ride it within a maximum time-frame of two years. Every time a defensive or alert behavior would occur the training activity was re-arranged to not over-pressure the horse. Therefore the persons working with the horses carried out the activities without tight expectations focusing on the horses’ positive attention. After eighteen months all six horses were used to the saddle and to riding. None of the horses ever fled or showed defense behavior and in the case of unexpected events they showed no emotional reactivity/reactive behavior. Today the horses show the same calm behavior whenever worked individually. This preliminary study highlights how social learning applied to equestrian activity can be fundamental for safety and welfare and the establishment of a more problem-free relationship between horse and human. Safety as the defensive behavior seems to have been reduced and welfare as the horses have been trained in a social context without being isolated and thus without being stressed during the training experience.
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Westermann, K. (2012). The contribution of horses (Equus caballus) to human health Requirements, stresses and strains, selection, training, compensation and rectification. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: For a longer time, I occupy myself in my profession as a veterinarian, with the requirements and strains of horses (Equus caballus) used to contribute human health. For the first time complex and interdisciplinary scientific investigations are made to draw conclusions from determined requirements and strains of so-called therapy horses in regard to an adequate selection and training as well as compensation of physical and psychic strains and rectification of these horses. Focusing the physical and psychic resources of horses as well, it becomes obvious, that a horse which received conventional training, compensation and rectification is neither adequately prepared for its task as a therapy horse, nor adequately escorted through its employment. Therefore it is time now for hippologists and veterinarians to promote a justifiable use of horses for therapy purposes by suitable means having in mind not only the efficiency of the intervention, but also the safety of clients, therapists and horses as well as our responsibility towards the horse and animal welfare in general. For a concept profitable for all participants, different, each other complementing modules are worked out. Based on an interdisciplinary exchange of know-how and interdisciplinary cooperation, the decisive elements of a comprehensive, targeted, requirement-oriented and horse-friendly training, compensation of the horse’s strains and rectification are outlined.
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Westermann, K. (2012). Das Therapiepferd: Was macht es so besonders und wertvoll? In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Als Tierärztin beschäftige ich mich seit geraumer Zeit mit den Anforderungen und Belastungsmomenten von Therapiepferden. Mein Ziel ist es, geeignete Methoden für die Auswahl, Ausbildung, Ausgleichs- und Korrekturarbeit dieser Pferde zu entwickeln.
Umfangreiche Recherchen haben ergeben, dass ein Pferd unter Berücksichtigung seiner physischen und psychischen Fähigkeiten durch die derzeit verbreitete Ausbildung, Ausgleichs- und Korrekturarbeit nur unzureichend auf die Aufgaben eines Therapiepferdes vorbereitet bzw. während seinesEinsatzes begleitet wird.
Aber genau hier liegt der Schlüssel für die Sicherheit von Klient, Therapeut und Pferd und den Erfolg der Therapie- und Fördermaßnahme. Darüber hinaus ist es auch im Sinne der Verantwortung für das Pferd und des Tierschutzes an der Zeit, durch geeignete Maßnahmen die verantwortbare Nutzung des Pferdes als Therapiepferd zu unterstützten.
Auf der Basis von interdisziplinärem Wissenstransfer und interinterdisziplinärer Kooperation werden die entscheidenden Elemente einer nachvollziehbaren, zielorientierten, bedarfs- und pferdegerechten Ausbildung, Ausgleichs- und Korrekturarbeit von Therapiepferden kurz skizziert.
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Giles J.K et al. (1963). Methods of Training Horses.
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Baudry, L., Leroy, D., & Chollet, D. (2006). The effect of combined self- and expert-modelling on the performance of the double leg circle on the pommel horse (Vol. 24).
Abstract: In this study, we investigated whether video modelling can enhance gymnasts' performance of the circle on a pommel horse. The procedure associated expert-modelling with self-modelling and quantitative performance analysis. Sixteen gymnasts were randomly assigned to one of two groups: (1) a modelling group, which received expert- and self-modelling, and performance feedback, or (2) a control group, which received no feedback. After five sessions of training, an analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated that the gains in the back, entry, front, and exit phases of the circle were greater for the modelling group than for the control group. During the training sessions, the gymnasts in the modelling group improved their body segmental alignment during the back phase more quickly than during the other phases. As predicted, although both groups performed the same number of circles (300 in 5 days, with 10 sequences of 6 circles), the modelling group improved their body segmental alignment more than the control group. It thus appears that immediate video modelling can help to correct complex sports movements such as the circle performed on the pommel horse. However, its effectiveness seemed to be dependent on the complexity of the phase.
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