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Warner, S. M., Koch, T. O., & Pfau, T. (2010). Inertial sensors for assessment of back movement in horses during locomotion over ground. Equine Veterinary Journal, 42, 417–424.
Abstract: Reasons for performing study: Assessing back movement is an important part of clinical examination in the horse and objective assessment tools allow for evaluating success of treatment. Objectives: Accuracy and consistency of inertial sensor measurements for quantification of back movement and movement symmetry during over ground locomotion were assessed; sensor measurements were compared to optical motion capture (mocap) and consistency of measurements focusing on movement symmetry was measured. Methods: Six nonlame horses were trotted in hand with synchronised mocap and inertial sensor data collection (landmarks: T6, T10, T13, L1 and S3). Inertial sensor data were processed using published methods and symmetry of dorsoventral displacement was assessed based on energy ratio, a Fourier based symmetry measure. Limits of agreement were calculated and visualised to compare mocap and sensor data. Consistency of sensor measurements was assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression to investigate the effect of speed on movement symmetry. Results: Dorsoventral and mediolateral sensor displacement was observed to lie within ± 4–5 mm (± 2 s.d., 9–28% of movement amplitude) and energy ratio to lie within ± 0.03 of mocap data. High levels of correlation were found between strides and trials (0.86–1.0) for each horse and each sensor and variability of symmetry was lowest for T13 followed by T10, T6, L1 and S3 with no significant effect of speed at T6, T10 and T13. Conclusions: Inertial sensor displacement and symmetry data showed acceptable accuracy and good levels of consistency for back movement. The small mediolateral movement amplitude means that changes of <25% in mediolateral amplitude (also unlikely to be detected by visual assessment) may go undetected. New sensor generations with improved sensor sensitivity and ease of use of equipment indicate good potential for use in a field situation.
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Groesel, M., Zsoldos, R. R., Kotschwar, A., Gfoehler, M., & Peham, C. (2010). A preliminary model study of the equine back including activity of longissimus dorsi muscle. Equine Veterinary Journal, 42, 401–406.
Abstract: Reasons for performing study: Identifying the underlying problem of equine back pain and diseases of the spine are significant problems in veterinary orthopaedics. A study to validate a preliminary biomechanical model of the equine back based on CT images including longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle is therefore important. Objectives: Validation of the back model by comparing the shortening of LD muscles in the model with integrated EMG (IEMG) at stance during induced lateral flexion of the spine. Methods:Longissimus dorsi muscle activity at stance has been used for validation. EMG electrodes were placed laterally at the level of T12, T16 and L3. Reflective markers have been attached on top of the spinous processes T5, T12, T16, L1 and the sacral bone (OS1, OS2) for motion tracking analysis. A virtual model of the equine's back (T1–S5) was built with inclusion of a simplified LD muscle by 2 separate contours left and right of the spine, starting at tuber coxae laterally and attaching to the spinous process T5 medially. Shortening of LD during induced lateral flexion caused by the kinematic data (input) was compared to the 3 EMG signals (T12, T16 and L3) on the active side via correlation. Results: Pearson correlation coefficient between IEMG and shortening length of LD in the model was (mean ± s.d.) 0.95 ± 0.07 for the left side and 0.91 ± 0.07 for the right side of LD. Conclusions: Activity of the LD muscles is mainly responsible for stabilisation of the vertebral column with isometric muscle contraction against dynamic forces in walk and trot. This validation requires muscle shortening in the back, like induced lateral flexion at stance. The length of the shortening muscle model and the IEMG show a linear relationship. These findings will help to model the LD for forward simulations, e.g. from force to motion.
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Dumont, B., Boissy, A., Achard, C., Sibbald, A. M., & Erhard, H. W. (2005). Consistency of animal order in spontaneous group movements allows the measurement of leadership in a group of grazing heifers. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 95(1-2), 55–66.
Abstract: The term `leadership' has been used in several different senses, resulting in very different ways of identifying leaders and apparently inconsistent conclusions on how leadership is determined in herbivores. We therefore propose the following definitions: (i) a leader is the individual that is consistently the one who initiates long-distance, spontaneous group movements toward a new feeding site and (ii) long-distance spontaneous group movements are movements which happen when an animal changes activity and location and is immediately followed by a similar change in activity and location by other members of the group. Using these definitions, we tested for consistency of movement order across time and situation within a group of fifteen 2-year-old heifers. We found that the same individual was recorded as the very first animal in 48% of movements toward a new feeding site and could therefore be identified as the `leader'. We also showed that movement order when the animals entered an experimental plot, or progressed slowly through the field during a grazing bout, did not produce the same result. This method, which enables us to identify leaders in groups of animals at pasture, should improve our knowledge of how leadership is determined in grazing herbivores.
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Fischhoff, I. R., Sundaresan, S. R., Cordingley, J., Larkin, H. M., Sellier, M. - J., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2007). Social relationships and reproductive state influence leadership roles in movements of plains zebra, Equus burchellii. Anim. Behav., 73(5), 825–831.
Abstract: In animal groups, collective movements emerge from individual interactions. Biologists seek to identify how characteristics of actors in these groups, and their relationships, influence the decision-making process. We distinguished two basic factors determining leadership in group choices: identity and state. We hypothesized that identity is more important to leadership in groups with stable relationships, which permit the development of habitual roles. In groups with fluid membership, particular individuals or subgroups are less likely to emerge as consistent leaders. Instead, we predicted that movement initiation in unstable groups depends on individual state at the time of the decision. We characterized how identity and reproductive state influenced leadership patterns in the movements of plains zebra. As in many other mammals, lactation in this species significantly alters water and energy needs. We investigated leadership in tightly knit harems and loosely bonded herds of multiple harems. Harem females tended to have habitual roles in the initiation of harem movement. In herds, however, we found no consistent leaders among harems. At both levels of social organization, lactation was a key determinant of leadership. In harems, lactating females were more likely to initiate movement than nonlactating females. In turn, harems containing lactating females were more likely to lead herd movements. Thus, we conclude that social relationships and reproductive state together shape the interactions that produce group behaviours. One benefit to lactating females of leading herd movements is preferential access to scarce water. Thus, leadership roles in group decisions may have fitness consequences.
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Ducro, B. J., Koenen, E. P. C., van Tartwijk, J. M. F. M., & Bovenhuis, H. (2007). Genetic relations of movement and free-jumping traits with dressage and show-jumping performance in competition of Dutch Warmblood horses. Livestock Science, 107(2-3), 227–234.
Abstract: Genetic parameters for traits evaluated at the studbook entry inspection and genetic correlations with dressage and show-jumping performance in competition were estimated. Data comprised 36,649 Warmblood horses that entered the studbook between 1992 and 2002. The genetic analyses were performed using univariate and bivariate animal models. Heritabilities of the studbook entry traits were estimated in the range 0.15-0.40. The movement traits showed moderate to strong mutual genetic correlations, whereas the genetic correlations of movement traits with free-jumping traits were weak to moderate. The free-jumping traits showed strong to very strong mutual genetic correlations. Competition results of 33,459 horses with performance in dressage and 30,474 horse with performance in show-jumping were linked to the studbook entry data to estimate the genetic relationship with performance in competition. Heritability estimates for dressage and show jumping were 0.14. Genetic correlations of the movement traits with dressage were moderate to strong, and with show-jumping weak to moderate. Genetic correlations of the free-jumping traits with dressage were weak to moderate and unfavourable. The free-jumping traits were genetically strong to very strong correlated to show-jumping. It was concluded that a selection of the traits evaluated at the studbook entry inspection will favourably contribute to estimation of breeding values for sport performance.
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Ramseyer, A., Petit, O., & Thierry, B. (2009). Decision-making in group departures of female domestic geese. Behaviour, 146, 351–371.
Abstract: Group-living animals have to make trade-offs to reach consensus and travel together. We investigated the recruitment processes underpinning decision-making at departure in a group of 20 female domestic geese (Anser domesticus) kept in semi-free-range conditions. Two observers continuously videotaped the behaviours of the birds. Data were analyzed using multiple regression analyses. We found that decision-making was a continuous and distributed process. Departure was preceded by an increase in the arousal state of group members and their initial orientation influenced recruitment. Patterns of group movement could be predicted from the behaviours of individuals before departure. Individuals' locations, moves and signals could act as passive or communicative cues. A higher number of vocalisations and arousal behaviours led to a larger number of individuals recruited. Some individuals were more efficient than others in recruiting followers but any geese could initiate a movement. First movers recruited a higher number of mates when they had a greater number of neighbours. Not only the first mover but also the behaviours of the second and third movers prompted further individuals to follow. There was no evidence that geese were able to intentionally recruit others, rather they synchronized and adjusted each other's motives until reaching a consensus.
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Shapiro, A. D., Janik, V. M., & Slater, P. J. B. (2003). A gray seal's (Halichoerus grypus) responses to experimenter-given pointing and directional cues. J Comp Psychol, 117(4), 355–362.
Abstract: A gray seal (Halichoerus grypus) was trained to touch a target on its left or right by responding to pointing signals. The authors then tested whether the seal would be able to generalize spontaneously to altered signals. It responded correctly to center pointing and head turning, center upper body turning, and off-center pointing but not to head turning and eye movements alone. The seal also responded correctly to brief ipsilateral and contralateral points from center and lateral positions. Pointing gestures did not cause the seal to select an object placed centrally behind it. Like many animals in similar studies, this gray seal probably did not understand the referential character of these gestures but rather used signal generalization and experience from initial operant conditioning to solve these tasks.
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Mech L.D. (2000). Leadership in Wolf, Canis lupus, Packs. Can Field Nat, 114(2), 259–263.
Abstract: I examine leadership in Wolf (Canis lupus) packs based on published observations and data gathered during summers from 1986 to 1998 studying a free-ranging pack of Wolves on Ellesmere Island that were habituated to my presence. The breeding male tended to initiate activities associated with foraging and travel, and the breeding female to initiate, and predominate in, pup care and protection. However, there was considerable overlap and interaction during these activities such that leadership could be considered a joint function. In packs with multiple breeders, quantitative information about leadership is needed.
Keywords: Wolf, Canis lupus, leadership, behavior, foraging, movements, pup care, provisioning, sociality, reproduction, breeding, Northwest Territories.
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Sueur, C., & Petit, O. (2008). Shared or unshared consensus decision in macaques? Behav. Process., 78(1), 84–92.
Abstract: Members of a social group have to make collective decisions in order to synchronise their activities. In a shared consensus decision, all group members can take part in the decision whereas in an unshared consensus decision, one individual, usually a dominant member of the group, takes the decision for the rest of the group. It has been suggested that the type of decision-making of a species could be influenced by its social style. To investigate this further, we studied collective movements in two species with opposed social systems, the Tonkean macaque (Macaca tonkeana) and the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). From our results, it appears that the decision to move is the result of the choices and actions of several individuals in both groups. However, this consensus decision involved nearly all group members in Tonkean macaques whereas dominant and old individuals took a prominent role in rhesus macaques. Thus, we suggest that Tonkean macaques display equally shared consensus decisions to move, whereas in the same context rhesus macaque exhibit partially shared consensus decisions. Such a difference in making a collective decision might be linked to the different social systems of the two studied species.
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Pillot, M. - H., & Deneubourg, J. - L. (2010). Collective movements, initiation and stops: Diversity of situations and law of parsimony. Behav. Process., 84(3), 657–661.
Abstract: The environment of animals is often heterogeneous, containing zones that may be dedicated specifically to resting, drinking or feeding. These functional zones may spread over a more or a less extensive area. Thus, mobile animals may have to move from one patch to another when resources are locally depleted or when they need to change activity. The mechanisms involved in collective movement appear simple at first glance, but a brief reflection shows the real difficulty of the problem in terms of the numerous environmental, physical, physiological and social parameters involved. This review is mainly concerned with collective movements, which are characterised by a directional and temporal coordination, where individuals mutually influence each other, meaning this coordination mainly depends on social interactions ([Huth and Wissel, 1992], [Warburton and Lazarus, 1991], [Couzin and Krause, 2003] and [Couzin et al., 2002]). In literature, two types of movement are discussed: large-scale movement and small-scale movement. First, we define these types of movement and then discuss the behavioural mechanisms involved. Secondly, we show that short and long movement but also moving and stopping may result from the outcome of parameters modulation underpinning collective decision-making.
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