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Machmoum, M., Badaoui, B., Petit, D., Germot, A., El Alaoui, M. A., Boujenane, I., et al. (2023). Genetic Diversity and Maternal Phylogenetic Relationships among Populations and Strains of Arabian Show Horses.
Abstract: Genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships within the Arabian show horse populations are of particular interest to breeders worldwide. Using the complete mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence (916 pb), this study aimed (i) to understand the genetic relationship between three populations, the Desert-Bred (DB), a subset of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Bahrain (BAH), the Straight Egyptian (EG) and the Polish bloodline (PL), and (ii) to assess the accuracy of the traditional strain classification system based on maternal lines, as stated by the Bedouin culture. To that end, we collected 211 hair samples from stud farms renowned for breeding Arabian show horses from Nejd KSA, Bahrain, Egypt, Qatar, Morocco, UAE, and Poland. The phylogenetic and network analyses of the whole mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence highlighted a great genetic diversity among the Arabian horse populations, in which about 75% of variance was assigned to populations and 25% to strains. The discriminant analysis of principal components illustrated a relative distinction between those populations. A clear subdivision between traditional strains was found in PL, in contrast to the situation of DB and EG populations. However, several Polish horse individuals could not be traced back to the Bedouin tribes by historical documentation and were shown to differ genetically from other studied Bedouin strains, hence motivating extended investigations.
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da Cruz, A. B., Hirata, S., dos Santos, M. E., & Mendonça, R. S. (2023). Show me your best side: Lateralization of social and resting behaviors in feral horses. Behav. Process., 206, 104839.
Abstract: Growing evidence shows a variety of sensorial and motor asymmetries in social and non-social interactions in various species, indicating a lateralized processing of information by the brain. Using digital video cameras on tripods and drones, this study investigated lateralization in frequency and duration of social behavior patterns, in affiliative, agonistic, and resting contexts, in a feral population of horses (Equus ferus caballus) in Northern Portugal, consisting of 37 individuals organized in eight harem groups. Affiliative interactions (including grooming) were more often performed, and lasted longer, when recipients were positioned to the right side. In recumbent resting (animals lying down) episodes on the left side lasted longer. Our results of an affiliative behavior having a right side tendency, provide partial support to the valence-specific hypothesis of Ahern and Schwartz (1979) – left hemisphere dominance for positive affect, affiliative behaviors. Longer recumbent resting episodes on the left side may be due to synchronization. However, in both instances it is discussed how lateralization may be context dependent. Investigating the position asymmetries of social behaviors in feral equids will contribute to a better understanding of differential lateralization and hemispheric specialization from the ecological and evolutionary perspectives.
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Hartmann, E., Christensen, J. W., & McGreevy, P. D. (2017). Dominance and Leadership: Useful Concepts in Human-Horse Interactions? Proceedings of the 2017 Equine Science Symposium, 52, 1–9.
Abstract: Dominance hierarchies in horses primarily influence priority access to limited resources of any kind, resulting in predictable contest outcomes that potentially minimize aggressive encounters and associated risk of injury. Levels of aggression in group-kept horses under domestic conditions have been reported to be higher than in their feral counterparts but can often be attributed to suboptimal management. Horse owners often express concerns about the risk of injuries occurring in group-kept horses, but these concerns have not been substantiated by empirical investigations. What has not yet been sufficiently addressed are human safety aspects related to approaching and handling group-kept horses. Given horse's natural tendency to synchronize activity to promote group cohesion, questions remain about how group dynamics influence human-horse interactions. Group dynamics influence a variety of management scenarios, ranging from taking a horse out of its social group to the prospect of humans mimicking the horse's social system by taking a putative leadership role and seeking after an alpha position in the dominance hierarchy to achieve compliance. Yet, there is considerable debate about whether the roles horses attain in their social group are of any relevance in their reactions to humans. This article reviews the empirical data on social dynamics in horses, focusing on dominance and leadership theories and the merits of incorporating those concepts into the human-horse context. This will provide a constructive framework for informed debate and valuable guidance for owners managing group-kept horses and for optimizing human-horse interactions.
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Sighieri, C., Tedeschi, D., De Andreis, C., Petri, L., & Baragli, P. (2003). Behaviour Patterns of Horses Can be Used to Establish a Dominant-Subordinate Relationship Between Man and Horse. Animal Welfare, 12(4), 705–708.
Abstract: This paper describes how man can enter the social hierarchy of the horse by mimicking the behaviour and stance it uses to establish dominance. A herd is organised according to a dominance hierarchy established by means of ritualised conflict. Dominance relationships are formed through these confrontations: one horse gains the dominant role and others identify themselves as subordinates. This study was conducted using five females of the Haflinger breed, totally unaccustomed to human contact, from a free-range breeding farm. The study methods were based on the three elements fundamental to the equilibrium of the herd: flight, herd instinct and hierarchy. The trainer-horse relationship was established in three phases: retreat, approach and association. At the end of the training sessions, all of the horses were able to respond correctly to the trainer. These observations suggest that it is possible to manage unhandled horses without coercion by mimicking their behaviour patterns.
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Goodwin, D. (1999). The importance of ethology in understanding the behaviour of the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal, 31(S28), 15–19.
Abstract: Summary Domestication has provided the horse with food, shelter, veterinary care and protection, allowing individuals an increased chance of survival. However, the restriction of movement, limited breeding opportunities and a requirement to expend energy, for the benefit of another species, conflict with the evolutionary processes which shaped the behaviour of its predecessors. The behaviour of the horse is defined by its niche as a social prey species but many of the traits which ensured the survival of its ancestors are difficult to accommodate in the domestic environment. There has been a long association between horses and man and many features of equine behaviour suggest a predisposition to interspecific cooperation. However, the importance of dominance in human understanding of social systems has tended to overemphasise its importance in the human-horse relationship. The evolving horse-human relationship from predation to companionship, has resulted in serial conflicts of interest for equine and human participants. Only by understanding the nature and origin of these conflicts can ethologists encourage equine management practices which minimise deleterious effects on the behaviour of the horse.
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Davies, H. M. S., & Merritt, J. S. (2004). Surface strains around the midshaft of the third metacarpal bone during turning. Equine Veterinary Journal, 36(8), 689–692.
Abstract: Summary Reasons for performing study: Bone strains quantify skeletal effects of specific exercise and hence assist in designing training programmes to avoid bone injury. Objective: To test whether compressive strains increase on the lateral surface of the inside third metacarpal bone (McIII) and the medial surface of the outside McIII in a turn. Methods: Rosette strain gauges on dorsal, medial and lateral surfaces of the midshaft of the left McIII in 2 Thoroughbred geldings were recorded simultaneously during turning at the walk on a bitumen surface. Results: Medial surface: Compression peaks were larger in the outside limb. Tension peaks were larger in the inside limb and in a tighter turn. On the lateral surface compression and tension peaks were larger on the inside limb, which showed the largest recorded strains (compression of -1400 microstrains). Dorsal compression strains were larger on the outside limb and on a larger circle. Tensile strains were similar in both directions and larger on a larger circle. Conclusions: Compressive strains increased on the lateral surface of the inside McIII and medial surface of the outside McIII in a turn. Potential relevance: Slow-speed turning exercise may be sufficient to maintain bone mechanical characteristics in the inside limb lateral McIII cortex. Further work is needed to confirm these findings and to determine whether faster gaits and/or tighter turns are sufficient to cause bone modelling levels of strain in the medial and lateral McIII cortex.
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Krueger, K., Esch, L., Farmer, K., & Marr, I. (2021). Basic Needs in Horses?--A Literature Review. Animals, 11(6), 1798.
Abstract: Every animal species has particular environmental requirements that are essential for its welfare, and when these so-called “basic needs” are not fulfilled, the animals suffer. The basic needs of horses have been claimed to be social contact, social companionship, free movement and access to roughage. To assess whether horses suffer when one or more of the four proposed basic needs are restricted, we examined several studies (n = 38) that reported behavioural and physiological reactions to these restrictions. We assigned the studies according to the four types of responses investigated: (a) Stress, (b) Active, (c) Passive, and (d) Abnormal Behaviour. Furthermore, the number of studies indicating that horses reacted to the restrictions were compared with the number of studies reporting no reaction. The limited number of studies available on single management restrictions did not allow conclusions to be drawn on the effect of each restriction separately, especially in the case of social companionship. However, when combinations of social contact, free movement and access to roughage were restricted, many of the horses had developed responses consistent with suffering. Passive Responses, indicating acute suffering, and Abnormal Behaviour, indicating suffering currently or at some time in the past, were especially clearly demonstrated. This provides further evidence of the usefulness of assessing behavioural parameters in combination with physiological measurements when evaluating horse welfare. This meta-analysis of the literature confirms that it is justified to claim that social contact, free movement and access to roughage are basic needs in horses.
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Krueger, K., Schwarz, S., Marr, I., & Farmer, K. (2022). Laterality in Horse Training: Psychological and Physical Balance and Coordination and Strength Rather Than Straightness. Animals, 12(8), 1042.
Abstract: For centuries, a goal of training in many equestrian disciplines has been to straighten the horse, which is considered a key element in achieving its responsiveness and suppleness. However, laterality is a naturally occurring phenomenon in horses and encompasses body asymmetry, motor laterality and sensory laterality. Furthermore, forcibly counterbalancing motor laterality has been considered a cause of psychological imbalance in humans. Perhaps asymmetry and laterality should rather be accepted, with a focus on training psychological and physical balance, coordination and equal strength on both sides instead of enforcing “straightness”. To explore this, we conducted a review of the literature on the function and causes of motor and sensory laterality in horses, especially in horses when trained on the ground or under a rider. The literature reveals that body asymmetry is innate but does not prevent the horse from performing at a high level under a rider. Motor laterality is equally distributed in feral horses, while in domestic horses, age, breed, training and carrying a rider may cause left leg preferences. Most horses initially observe novel persons and potentially threatening objects or situations with their left sensory organs. Pronounced preferences for the use of left sensory organs or limbs indicate that the horse is experiencing increased emotionality or stress, and long-term insufficiencies in welfare, housing or training may result in left shifts in motor and sensory laterality and pessimistic mentalities. Therefore, increasing laterality can be regarded as an indicator for insufficiencies in housing, handling and training. We propose that laterality be recognized as a welfare indicator and that straightening the horse should be achieved by conducting training focused on balance, coordination and equal strength on both sides.
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Töpfer, D., Wolter, R., & Krueger, K. (2014). Fallstudie zum Platzangebot, Verhalten und Wohlbefinden der Pferde (Equus caballus) in Mehrraum-Außenlaufställen mit Aus-lauf und Bewegungsställen [A case study to space, behavior and well-being of horses (Equus caballus) in open stables and open active stables]. KTBL Schriften. Darmstadt: KTBL.
Abstract: Verhaltensbeobachtungen erfolgten an 112 Pferden in Mehrraum-Außenlaufställen mit Auslauf und Bewegungsställen. Bei vermehrtem Platzangebot sinkt das agonistische Verhalten in Bewegungsställen außerhalb des Fressbereiches. Mit zunehmender Stallgröße (überdachte Fläche und Auslauf) steigt in beiden Haltungsverfahren das affiliative Verhalten während das agonistische Verhalten mit Verletzungsrisiko sinkt. Daher wird für beide Haltungsverfahren ein möglichst großzügiger Stall je Pferd empfohlen. Die beobachteten Erkrankungen der letzten zwölf Monate zeigen vermehrt Hautkrankheiten in den Mehrraum-Außenlaufställen mit Auslauf, wohingegen Hufgeschwüre in Bewegungsställen auftraten. Wird der Fütterungsaspekt in den Bewegungsställen betrachtet, so ist die Transponderfütterung in Kombination mit ad libitum Fütterung aufgrund des deutlich geringeren, agonistischen Verhaltens beim Fressen, der reinen Transponderfütterung vorzuziehen. Mehrraum-Außenlaufställe mit Auslauf haben den Vorteil der synchronen Nahrungsaufnahme.
[The behaviour of 112 horses was observed in open stables and open active stables. Horses show less agonistic behaviour outside of the feeding area in open active stables as the space for each horse is augmented. Also the affiliative behaviour increases as a function of more space per horse while agonistic behaviour with a risk for injury decreases. These results are independent from the husbandry system. Due to this fact a stable with a larger area per horse is recommended. Diseases of the last twelve month were recorded and show skin diseases in open stables and abscesses in the hooves in open active stables. To consider the feeding in open active stables it was found that horses which were fed with hay controlled by transponders showed more agonistic behaviour in contrast to horses being fed using transponders but with access to hay ad libitum. Thus transponder feeding in combination with ad libitum feeding is recommended. Open stables have the advantage of synchronized feeding.]
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Niederhöfer, S. (2009). Stressbelastung bei Pferden in Abhängigkeit des Haltungssystems. Ph.D. thesis, Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, Hannover.
Abstract: Pferdegerechte Haltungssysteme spielen bei der heutigen Nutzung des Freizeit- oder Sportpartners Pferd eine wichtige Rolle, da naturnahe Haltungsbedingungen nur in seltenen Fällen zu realisieren sind. Sämtliche Aufstallungsformen müssen als Kompromiss angesehen werden und bieten somit Vor- und Nachteile. Die vorliegende Untersuchung verfolgte den Zweck, die Stressbelastung von Pferden in verschiedenen Haltungssystemen zu erfassen und vergleichend zu beurteilen. Während der von Mai 2006 bis Juli 2007 durchgeführten Versuche wurden 24 zwei- bis dreijährige Hannoveranerstuten für jeweils 4 Wochen in insgesamt 6 verschiedenen Haltungsformen aufgestallt. Die Haltungsvarianten beinhalteten die Einzelbox (Variante 1), die Einzelbox mit einem frei zugänglichem Paddock (Variante 2), die gemeinsame Haltung von zwei Pferden in zwei Boxen und einem angeschlossenen frei zugänglichem Auslauf (Variante 3) und die Gruppenhaltung von 6 Pferden in einer Mehrraumauslaufhaltung (Variante 4 – 6). Die Haltungsvariante 4 differierte von den Varianten 5 und 6 durch seinen ungegliederten Liegebereich. In den Variante 5 und 6 wurde der Liegebereich der Gruppenhaltung durch eine über die halbe Breite reichende Trennwand in zwei Bereiche unterteilt. Die Trennwand befand sich in Haltungsvariante 5 im rechten Winkel an die Außenwand grenzend, während sie in Variante 6 an der der Stallgasse zugewandten Seite des Liegebereichs aufgestellt wurde. Um eine Vergleichbarkeit mit einem Reitpferd zu schaffen, wurden alle Pferde in allen Haltungssystemen täglich für circa eine Stunde in einer Freilaufanlage bewegt. Die Stressbelastung wurde mittels der Messung der Herzfrequenzvariabilität (Parameter pNN50 und SD1) und der Bestimmung fäkaler Cortisolmetaboliten erfasst. Zusätzlich wurden Videoauswertungen hinsichtlich der Beobachtung von Verhaltensauffälligkeiten in den Haltungsvarianten 1 und 2 durchgeführt. Die durchschnittlich niedrigste Stressbelastung erfuhren die Pferde durch die Haltungsvarianten 4 (pNN50: 46,32 %, SD1:158,58 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 21,01nmol/kg Kot) und 6 (pNN50: 47,1 %, SD1: 144,62 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 21,01 nmol/kg Kot). Die
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Auswertung der pNN50- und Cortisolmetabolitenwerte ergab die größte Stressbelastung der Pferde in den Varianten 1 (pNN50: 42,81 %, SD1: 134,52 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 28,56 nmol/kg Kot) und 3 (pNN50: 42,41 %, SD1: 135,36, Cortisolmetaboliten: 28,60 nmol/kg Kot). Die Auswertung der SD1-Werte zeigte zusätzlich noch eine hohe Stressbelastung der Pferde in der Variante 5 (pNN50: 44,83 %, SD1: 119,24 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 27,18 nmol/kg Kot). Die Haltungsvariante 2 (pNN50: 45,77 %, SD1: 144,25 ms, Cortisolmetaboliten: 27,59 nmol/kg Kot) beziehungsweise die Varianten 2 und 5 (bei der Betrachtung der pNN50- und der Cortisolmetabolitenwerte) verursachten im Durchschnitt eine mittlere Stressbelastung. Teilweise waren die Unterschiede jedoch zu gering um die Signifikanzgrenze zu überschreiten. Die Betrachtung der einzelnen Pferde und der Pferdegruppen ergab große interindividuelle Unterschiede und deutliche gruppenspezifische Gemeinsamkeiten. Die Position eines Tieres in der Rangordnung hatte in diesen Untersuchungen bei der Betrachtung der Mittelwerte keinen Einfluss auf die Stressbelastung in Abhängigkeit der Haltungsvariante. Vielmehr zeigten sich auch hier deutliche individuelle Unterschiede in der Stressanfälligkeit und den Vorlieben der einzelnen Pferde bezüglich der verschiedenen Haltungssysteme. Die Analyse der Videoaufzeichnungen ergab, dass mehrere Pferde Kreisbewegungen in der Einzelbox ohne Auslauf (Variante 1) zeigten, während in der Variante 2 (Paddockbox) kein Pferd durch Kreisbewegungen auffiel. Andere Verhaltensauffälligkeiten oder gar Verhaltensstörungen wurden nicht beobachtet. Bei der Auswertung der Aufenthaltshäufigkeit und der Aufenthaltesdauer in den 4 Boxenquadranten zeigten sich einige Pferde sehr aktiv, was ein Hinweis auf eventuelle Unruhe oder Nervosität sein kann, während andere Pferde im Vergleich zum Gruppendurchschnitt sehr ruhig wirkten, da sie sich in der Box kaum bewegten und über lange Zeitabschnitte in einem Quadranten standen. Obwohl die Gruppenhaltung für die Mehrzahl der Pferde eine geringere Stressbelastung bedeutete und auch hinsichtlich des Bewegungs- und Sozialverhaltens am artgerechtesten einzustufen ist, sollte für jedes Pferd individuell unter Berücksichtigung seines Alters, seiner Rasse, seines Nutzungsgrades, aber vor allem seines Charakters und seiner Erfahrungen im Sozialverhalten ein passendes großzügig bemessenes Haltungssystem ermittelt werden, um
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die durch das Haltungssystem ausgeübte Stressbelastung zu minimieren und das Wohlbefinden der Pferde zu steigern.
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