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	Author	Huber, L.; Gajdon, G.K.
	Title	Technical intelligence in animals: the kea model			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	4	Pages	295-305
	Keywords	Animals; Comprehension; Intelligence; Models, Psychological; Observation; Parrots; Problem Solving; Psychological Theory; Social Environment; *Tool Use Behavior
	Abstract	The ability to act on information flexibly is one of the cornerstones of intelligent behavior. As particularly informative example, tool-oriented behavior has been investigated to determine to which extent nonhuman animals understand means-end relations, object affordances, and have specific motor skills. Even planning with foresight, goal-directed problem solving and immediate causal inference have been a focus of research. However, these cognitive abilities may not be restricted to tool-using animals but may be found also in animals that show high levels of curiosity, object exploration and manipulation, and extractive foraging behavior. The kea, a New Zealand parrot, is a particularly good example. We here review findings from laboratory experiments and field observations of keas revealing surprising cognitive capacities in the physical domain. In an experiment with captive keas, the success rate of individuals that were allowed to observe a trained conspecific was significantly higher than that of naive control subjects due to their acquisition of some functional understanding of the task through observation. In a further experiment using the string-pulling task, a well-probed test for means-end comprehension, we found the keas finding an immediate solution that could not be improved upon in nine further trials. We interpreted their performance as insightful in the sense of being sensitive of the relevant functional properties of the task and thereby producing a new adaptive response without trial-and-error learning. Together, these findings contribute to the ongoing debate on the distribution of higher cognitive skills in the animal kingdom by showing high levels of sensorimotor intelligence in animals that do not use tools. In conclusion, we suggest that the 'Technical intelligence hypothesis' (Byrne, Machiavellian intelligence II: extensions and evaluations, pp 289-211, 1997), which has been proposed to explain the origin of the ape/monkey grade-shift in intelligence by a selection pressure upon an increased efficiency in foraging behavior, should be extended, that is, applied to some birds as well.
	Address	Department for Behavior, Neurobiology and Cognition, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria. ludwig.huber@univie.ac.at
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16909237			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	2085
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	Author	Thornton, A.; McAuliffe, K.
	Title	Teaching in wild meerkats			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Science (New York, N.Y.)	Abbreviated Journal	Science
	Volume	313	Issue	5784	Pages	227-229
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild/psychology; Behavior, Animal; Herpestidae/psychology; Learning; Predatory Behavior; South Africa; *Teaching; Vocalization, Animal
	Abstract	Despite the obvious benefits of directed mechanisms that facilitate the efficient transfer of skills, there is little critical evidence for teaching in nonhuman animals. Using observational and experimental data, we show that wild meerkats (Suricata suricatta) teach pups prey-handling skills by providing them with opportunities to interact with live prey. In response to changing pup begging calls, helpers alter their prey-provisioning methods as pups grow older, thus accelerating learning without the use of complex cognition. The lack of evidence for teaching in species other than humans may reflect problems in producing unequivocal support for the occurrence of teaching, rather than the absence of teaching.
	Address	Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK. jant2@cam.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1095-9203	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16840701			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2834
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	Author	Franks, N.R.; Richardson, T.
	Title	Teaching in tandem-running ants			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	439	Issue	7073	Pages	153
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Ants/physiology; Feedback/physiology; Learning/physiology; Teaching
	Abstract	The ant Temnothorax albipennis uses a technique known as tandem running to lead another ant from the nest to food--with signals between the two ants controlling both the speed and course of the run. Here we analyse the results of this communication and show that tandem running is an example of teaching, to our knowledge the first in a non-human animal, that involves bidirectional feedback between teacher and pupil. This behaviour indicates that it could be the value of information, rather than the constraint of brain size, that has influenced the evolution of teaching.
	Address	School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 IUG, UK. nigel.franks@bristol.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1476-4687	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16407943			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4651
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	Author	VanDierendonck, M.C.
	Title	Summary			Type	Manuscript
	Year	2006	Publication	The Importance of Social Relationships in Horses	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	Chapter 8	Issue		Pages
	Keywords	horses, social relationships, dominance, allogrooming, play, kinship, familiarity, self-rewarding, interventions, ethological need
	Abstract	Feral horses are social animals, which have to rely on survival strategies centered on the formation of cohesive social bonds within their bands. Many problems in the husbandry of social animals such as horses, are due to the fact that the limits of their adaptive abilities are exceeded. Evidence suggests that the fundamental social characteristics of domestic horses have remained relatively unchanged. The social structure, social strategies and social interactions were investigated (3 non-consecutive years, 24 hr per day for several weeks) in long term established groups of domestic horses (mares and geldings of all ages) and a few small introduced groups, kept in (semi)natural environments. The general aim was to investigate the social needs of domestic horses. The social life of domestic horses was characterised by long lasting bonds with preferred partners which were established and maintained by allogrooming, play, proximity and dominance behaviours. Bonding partners were mainly found within the same sex-age group, but adult geldings also bonded with sub-adult mares and geldings. Adult mares were clustered in a group, while the other animals formed a second group. Among the adult mares, subgroups according to reproductive state were formed. Individuals regulated their social network by interfering with interactions between other members of the herd, which in itself is complex. An intervention is a behavioural action of one animal that actively interferes with an ongoing interaction between a dyad with the apparent aim of altering that interaction. This was verified by post-hoc analyses of disturbed and undisturbed interactions. Interventions in allogrooming or play were performed significantly more often when at least one member of the initial dyad was a preferred partner of, or familiar to (within the small introduced bands) the intervener. The stronger the preferred association in allogrooming between the intervener and member(s) of the initial dyad, the higher the probability the intervener would displace one initial member and continue allogrooming with the other. Just five behaviours were extracted which reliably reflected the dominance relations among horses. Aggression with the hind quarters was used both offensively and defensively and therefore not suitable as a reliable parameter. Individual dominance relationships were related to social experience. The implications of these findings for horse husbandry were assessed. It is argued that the execution of affiliative behaviours may be rewarding in itself, and therefore always will be a highly motivated behaviour. It is shown that social positive physical interactions (allogrooming, play) with other horses is an ethological need and therefore indispensable in modern husbandry systems. Ethological needs are so important for the animal that husbandry systems that lack the possibilities to execute such behaviours will cause chronic stress. It is concluded that all horses need physical social contact, and that horses, which lack appropriate social learning experiences during ontogeny, may be hampered in their social functioning later in life. Solutions for problems, including dominance problems, in individual social housing and group housing are presented.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis	Ph.D. thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication	Universiteit Utrecht	Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2373
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	Author	Deecke, V.B.
	Title	Studying Marine Mammal Cognition in the Wild: A Review of Four Decades of Playback Experiments			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Aquatic Mammals	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	32	Issue		Pages	461-482
	Keywords
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	3420
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	Author	Kaiser, L.; Heleski, C.R.; Siegford, J.; Smith, K.A.
	Title	Stress-related behaviors among horses used in a therapeutic riding program			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association	Abbreviated Journal	J Am Vet Med Assoc
	Volume	228	Issue	1	Pages	39-45
	Keywords	Adult; Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Child; Disabled Persons; Female; Horses/psychology; Humans; Male; Mentally Disabled Persons; Occupational Therapy/methods; Recreation; Risk Factors; Stress/*veterinary
	Abstract	OBJECTIVE: To determine whether therapeutic riding resulted in higher levels of stress or frustration for horses than did recreational riding and whether therapeutic riding with at-risk individuals was more stressful for the horses than was therapeutic riding with individuals with physical or emotional handicaps. DESIGN: Observational study. ANIMALS: 14 horses in a therapeutic riding program. PROCEDURE: An ethogram of equine behaviors was created, and horses were observed while ridden by 5 groups of riders (recreational riders, physically handicapped riders, psychologically handicapped riders, at risk children, and special education children). Number of stress-related behaviors (ears pinned back, head raised, head turned, head tossed, head shaken, head down, and defecation) was compared among groups. RESULTS: No significant differences in mean number of stress-related behaviors were found when horses were ridden by recreational riders, physically handicapped riders, psychologically handicapped riders, or special education children. However, mean number of stress-related behaviors was significantly higher when horses were ridden by the at-risk children. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that for horses in a therapeutic riding program, being ridden by physically or psychologically handicapped individuals is no more stressful for the horses than is being ridden in the same setting by recreational riders. However, at-risk children caused more stress to the horses, suggesting that the time horses are ridden by at-risk children should be limited both daily and weekly.
	Address	Human-Animal Bond Initiative, College of Nursing, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-1488	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16426164			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1879
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	Author	Riesch, R.; Ford, J.K.B.; Thomsen, F.
	Title	Stability and group specificity of stereotyped whistles in resident killer whales, Orcinus orca, off British Columbia			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim.Behav.
	Volume	71	Issue	1	Pages	79-91
	Keywords
	Abstract	Resident killer whales off British Columbia form four acoustically distinct clans, each with a unique dialect of discrete pulsed calls. Three clans belong to the northern and one to the southern community. Resident killer whales also produce tonal whistles, which play an important role in close-range communication within the northern community. However, there has been no comparative analysis of repertoires of whistles across clans. We investigated the structural characteristics, stability and group specificity of whistles in resident killer whales off British Columbia. Acoustic recordings and behavioural observations were made between 1978 and 2003. Whistles were classified spectrographically and additional observers were used to confirm our classification. Whistles were compared across clans using discriminant function analysis. We found 11 types of stereotyped whistles in the northern and four in the southern community with some of the whistle types being stable over at least 13 years. In northern residents, 10 of the 11 whistle types were structurally identical in two of the three acoustic clans, whereas the whistle types of southern residents differed clearly from those of the northern residents. Our study shows that killer whales that have no overlap in their call repertoire use essentially the same set of stereotyped whistles. Shared stereotyped whistles might provide a community-level means of recognition that facilitates association and affiliation of members of different clans, which otherwise use distinct signals. We further suggest that vocal learning between groups plays an important role in the transmission of whistle types.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5423
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	Author	Henderson, J.; Hurly, T.A.; Healy, S.D.
	Title	Spatial relational learning in rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	3	Pages	201-205
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Birds; Concept Formation; Flowers; Form Perception; Male; Orientation; Reward; Size Perception; *Space Perception; Spatial Behavior
	Abstract	There is increasing evidence that animals can learn abstract spatial relationships, and successfully transfer this knowledge to novel situations. In this study, rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus) were trained to feed from either the lower or the higher of two flowers. When presented with a test pair of flowers, one of which was at a novel height, they chose the flower in the appropriate spatial position rather than the flower at the correct height. This response may also have been influenced by a preference for taller flowers as acquisition of the task during experimental training occurred more readily when the reward flower was the taller of the pair. Thus, it appears that although learning abstract relationships may be a general phenomenon across contexts, and perhaps across species, the ease with which they are learned and the context in which they are subsequently used may not be the same.
	Address	Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16767469			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2465
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	Author	Church, D.L.; Plowright, C.M.S.
	Title	Spatial encoding by bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) of a reward within an artificial flower array			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	2	Pages	131-140
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior/physiology; Association Learning/physiology; Bees/physiology; Chi-Square Distribution; Cues; Female; Memory/physiology; Reward; Space Perception/physiology; Spatial Behavior/*physiology
	Abstract	We presented bumblebees a spatial memory task similar to that used with other species (e.g., cats, dogs, and pigeons). In some conditions we allowed for presence of scent marks in addition to placing local and global spatial cues in conflict. Bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) were presented an array of artificial flowers within a flight cage, one flower offering reward (S+), while the others were empty (S-). Bees were tested with empty flowers. In Experiment 1, flowers were either moved at the time of testing or not. Bees returned to the flower in the same absolute position of the S+ (the flower-array-independent (FAI) position), even if it was in the wrong position relative to the S- and even when new flower covers prevented the use of possible scent marks. New flower covers (i.e., without possible scent marks) had the effect of lowering the frequency of probing behavior. In Experiment 2, the colony was moved between training and testing. Again, bees chose the flower in the FAI position of the S+, and not the flower that would be chosen using strictly memory for a flight vector. Together, these experiments show that to locate the S+ bees did not rely on scent marks nor the positions of the S-, though the S- were prominent objects close to the goal. Also, bees selected environmental features to remember the position of the S+ instead of relying upon a purely egocentric point of view. Similarities with honeybees and vertebrates are discussed, as well as possible encoding mechanisms.
	Address	Psychology Department, Bag Service #45444, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 6E4, Canada. dchurchl@unb.ca
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16416106			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2474
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	Author	Stevens, J.; Vervaecke, H.; De Vries, H.; Van Elsacker, L.
	Title	Social structures in Pan paniscus: testing the female bonding hypothesis			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Primates	Abbreviated Journal	Primates
	Volume	47	Issue	3	Pages	210-217
	Keywords
	Abstract	Abstract  Based on previous research in captivity, bonobos, Pan paniscus, have been called a female-bonded species. However, genetic and behavioural data indicate that wild females migrate. Bonding between these unrelated females would then be in contradiction with socio-ecological models. It has been argued that female bonding has been overemphasized in captive bonobos. We examine patterns of proximity, grooming and support behaviour in six well established captive groups of bonobos. We find that female bonding was not a typical characteristic of all captive bonobo groups. In only two groups there was a trend for females to prefer proximity with other females over association with males. We found no evidence that following or grooming between females was more frequent than between males and unrelated females or between males. Only in coalitions, females supported each other more than male-female or male-male dyads. We also investigated five mother-son pairs. Grooming was more frequent among mothers and sons than in any other dyad, but sons did not groom their mothers more than males groomed unrelated females. Mothers groomed their sons, or provided more support to them than females groomed or supported unrelated males. Thus, while bonds between females were clearly present, intersexual relations between males and either unrelated females or their mothers are of more, or equal importance.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2193
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