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Schneider, G., & Krueger, K. (2012). Third-party interventions keep social partners from exchanging affiliative interactions with others. Anim. Behav., 83(2), 377–387.
Abstract: Third-party interventions are defined as the interruption of dyadic interactions by third animals through direct physical contact, interposing or threats. Previous studies focused on the analysis of interventions against agonistic encounters. However, there have been no evaluations of interventions against affiliative behaviours, particularly in relation to the intervening animal�s social relationships and its social and spatial position. Horses, Equus caballus, are an interesting model species, as interventions against affiliative interactions occur more frequently than against agonistic interactions. In this study, 64 feral horses displayed 67 interventions in affiliative interactions and eight interventions in agonistic interactions within the observation period. We analysed the interventions in affiliative encounters, and found that it was mainly higher-ranking females that intervened in the affiliative interactions of group mates in the stable horse harems. The intervening animals took an active part in affiliative and agonistic encounters within the group, but did not occupy particular social roles or spatial positions. They intervened in affiliative interactions in which group mates with which they had social bonds interacted with other members of the group. They targeted the nonbonded animal and approached the one with which they were socially bonded. We suggest some species use third-party interventions in affiliative interactions to prevent competition for preferred social interaction partners from escalating into more costly agonistic encounters.
Keywords: Equus caballus; horse; rank; social bond; social network; third-party intervention
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Dallmeyer, M. D., Turner, R. M., McDonnell, S. M., Sertich, P. L., Dolente, B. A., Parente, E. J., et al. (2006). Theriogenology question of the month. Behavior problems in a stallion caused by a nephrolith. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 229(4), 511–513.
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Pauw, J. (2000). Therapeutic Horseback Riding Studies: Problems Experienced by Researchers. Physiotherapy, 86(10), 523–527.
Abstract: Summary Since the therapeutic use of horse riding has been realised, several research studies investigating the physical and psychosocial effect of therapeutic riding have been conducted. A summary is given of therapeutic riding research studies where formal statistical tests were used to analyse the data as well as a summary of studies where different techniques were used to process the data. These summaries give an overview of the variables measured in previously conducted therapeutic riding studies. The general problems experienced by therapeutic riding researchers are given after the summaries. Possible explanations are discussed for some of these problems. In conclusion a few suggestions are given for future research, not only for therapeutic riding studies, but for any study where the effect of a therapeutic intervention is investigated.
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Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M., Spierenburg, A. J., & van den Broek, E. T. W. (2006). The workload of riding-school horses during jumping.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING THE STUDY: As there are no reports on the real workload of horses that jump fences, this study was undertaken in riding-school horses. OBJECTIVE: To compare the workload of horses jumping a course of fences with that of horses cantering over the same course at the same average speed without jumping fences. The workload variables included heart rate (HR), packed cell volume (PCV), acid-base balance (venous pH, pCO2, HCO3-) and blood lactate (LA), glucose, total protein and electrolyte concentrations. METHODS: Eight healthy riding-school horses performed test A (a course of approximately 700 m with 12 jumps from 0.8-1.0 m high at an average speed of approximately 350 m/min) and test B (same course at the same speed, but without the rails) in a crossover study with at least 4 h between the 2 tests. Before each test the horses were fitted with a heart rate meter (Polar Electro). Blood samples were taken from the jugular vein at rest prior to the test, after warm-up before starting the course, immediately after the course and after recovery. All samples were analysed immediately. RESULTS: The mean +/- s.d maximal HR (beats/min) during the course (184 +/- 17 and 156 +/- 21, respectively) and the mean HR after recovery (75 +/- 6 and 63 +/- 7, respectively) were significantly higher in test A compared to test B (P = 0.001 and P = 0.007 respectively). The mean LA concentrations after the course and after recovery (mmol/l) were significantly higher in test A (3.6 +/- 2.7 and 1.0 +/- 0.9, respectively) compared to test B (0.9 +/- 0.5 and 0.3 +/- 0.1, respectively), (P = 0.016 and P = 0.048 respectively). The mean PCV (I/l) after the course and after recovery was also significantly different between tests A (0.48 +/- 0.04 and 0.39 +/- 0.03, respectively) and B (0.42 +/- 0.04 and 0.36 +/- 0.03, respectively) (P<0.01). The mean pH and the mean HCO3- (mmol/l) after the course were significantly lower in test A (7.40 +/- 0.04 and 28.9 +/- 1.4, respectively) compared to test B (7.45 +/- 0.03 and 30.4 +/- 2.3, respectively) (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that in riding-school horses jumping fences, even at a low level competition, provokes a significant workload compared to cantering the same distance and speed without fences. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study makes it clear that the extra workload of jumping fences should be taken into account in the training programmes of jumping horses. Further research with more experienced horses jumping higher fences will reveal the workload for top-level jumping horses.
Keywords: Acid-Base Equilibrium/physiology; Animals; Blood Gas Analysis/veterinary; Blood Glucose/metabolism; Cross-Over Studies; Electrolytes/blood; Female; Heart Rate/*physiology; Hematocrit/veterinary; Horses/blood/*physiology; Lactates/*blood; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; *Sports; Time Factors; Water-Electrolyte Balance/physiology
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Kiley, M. (1972). The vocalizations of ungulates, their causation and function. Z. Tierpsychol., 31(2), 171–222.
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Chilton, N. B. (2004). The use of nuclear ribosomal DNA markers for the identification of bursate nematodes (order Strongylida) and for the diagnosis of infections. Anim Health Res Rev, 5(2), 173–187.
Abstract: Many bursate nematodes are of major importance to animal health. Animals are often parasitized by multiple species that differ in their prevalence, relative abundance and/or pathogenicity. Implementation of effective management strategies for these parasites requires reliable methods for their detection in hosts, identification to the species level and measurement of intensity of infection. One major problem is the difficulty of accurately identifying and distinguishing many species of bursate nematode because of the remarkable morphological similarity of their eggs and larvae. The inability to identify, with confidence, individual nematodes (irrespective of their life-cycle stage) to the species level by morphological methods has often led to a search for species-specific genetic markers. Studies over the past 15 years have shown that sequences of the internal transcribed spacers of ribosomal DNA provide useful genetic markers, providing the basis for the development of PCR-based diagnostic tools. Such molecular methods represent powerful tools for studying the systematics, epidemiology and ecology of bursate nematodes and, importantly, for the specific diagnosis of infections in animals and humans, thus contributing to improved control and prevention strategies for these parasites.
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Parsons, K. J., & Wilson, A. M. (2006). The use of MP3 recorders to log data from equine hoof mounted accelerometers. Equine Vet J, 38(7), 675–680.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDy: MP3 recorders are readily available, small, lightweight and low cost, providing the potential for logging analogue hoof mounted accelerometer signals for the characterisation of equine locomotion. These, however, require testing in practice. OBJECTIVES: To test whether 1) multiple MP3 recorders can maintain synchronisation, giving the ability to synchronise independent recorders for the logging of multiple limbs simultaneously; and 2) features of a foot mounted accelerometer signal attributable to foot-on and foot-off can be accurately identified from horse foot mounted accelerometers logged directly into an MP3 recorder. METHODS: Three experiments were performed: 1) Maintenance of synchronisation was assessed by counting the number of samples recorded by each of 4 MP3 recorders while mounted on a trotting horse and over 2 consecutive 30 min periods in 8 recorders on a bench. 2) Foot-on and foot-off times obtained from manual transcription of MP3 logged data and directly logged accelerometer signal were compared. 3) MP3/accelerometer acquisition units were used to log accelerometer signals from racehorses during extended training sessions. RESULTS: Mean absolute error of synchronisation between MP3 recorders was 10 samples per million (compared to mean number of samples, range 1-32 samples per million). Error accumulation showed a linear correlation with time. Features attributable to foot on and foot off were equally identifiable from the MP3 recorded signal over a range of equine gaits. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple MP3 recorders can be synchronised and used as a relatively cheap, robust, reliable and accurate logging system when combined with an accelerometer and external battery for the specific application of the measurement of stride timing variables across the range of equine gaits during field locomotion. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Footfall timings can be used to identify intervals between the fore and hind contacts, the identification of diagonal advanced placement and to calculate stride timing variables (stance time, protraction time and stride time). These parameters are invaluable for the characterisation and assessment of equine locomotion.
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McAfee L.M., Mills D.S., & Cooper J.J. (2002). The use of mirrors for the control of stereotypic weaving behaviour in the stabled horse. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 78, 159–173.
Abstract: Weaving, a common locomotor stereotypy, has been associated with social isolation in stabled horses. In this study we investigated the effect of provision of mirrors on weaving as this may have a similar effect to access to conspecifics. The behaviour of six known weavers, each in one of three locations within a working equine yard, was recorded, 5 days a week for 12 weeks. After a pre-trial period of a week, one horse in each of the three locations was provided with a 1mx1.5m mirror for 5 weeks, after which time the mirrors were removed and placed in the stables of the other three subjects for the next 5 weeks. All mirrors were then removed and the horses observed for a final week (post-trial period). The provision of a mirror significantly reduced the incidence of both stereotypic weaving (P<0.001) and nodding (P<0.05) for the 5 weeks of treatment but did not affect the time the horses spent standing active, dozing or ingesting. The mirror may mimic visual contact with conspecifics (minimising the social isolation of the stable) and/or provide environmental distraction or additional visual stimuli, altering the horses' perception of the environment and their resultant responses to it. The use of mirrors in the stable appears to be a more effective treatment of weaving than many current popular treatments, including weaving bars.
Keywords: Horse; Housing; Mirror; Stereotypy; Weaving
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Proops, L., Walton, M., & McComb, K. (2010). The use of human-given cues by domestic horses, Equus caballus, during an object choice task. Anim. Behav., 79(6), 1205–1209.
Abstract: Selection pressures during domestication are thought to lead to an enhanced ability to use human-given cues. Horses fulfil a wide variety of roles for humans and have been domesticated for at least 5000 years but their ability to read human cues has not been widely studied. We tested the ability of 28 horses to attend to human-given cues in an object choice task. We included five different cues: distal sustained pointing, momentary tapping, marker placement, body orientation and gaze (head) alternation. Horses were able to use the pointing and marker placement cues spontaneously but not the tapping, body orientation and gaze alternation cues. The overall pattern of responding suggests that horses may use cues that provide stimulus enhancement at the time of choice and do not have an understanding of the communicative nature of the cues given. As such, their proficiency at this task appears to be inferior to that of domestic dogs, Canis lupus familiaris, but similar to that of domestic goats, Caprus hircus.
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Owen, H., Hall, C., Hallam, S., & Smith, E. (2012). The use of GPS to measure feeding behaviour and activity patterns in the horse (Equus caballus). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The global positioning system (GPS) has been used to record activity and monitor habitat use in many animal species. In the horse (Equus caballus) the monitoring of activity and feeding patterns has been used to assess the impact of environmental factors on behaviour and welfare. In free-ranging animals GPS can provide such information but the accuracy and reliability of these devices has yet to be confirmed. The aim of this study was: 1) to compare the results of visual observation with GPS recordings of the horse’s head and neck position (head up (HU) and down (HD)) used to quantify time spent grazing; 2) to test the use of GPS collars to monitor activity patterns where distance, speed and location paths were recorded. In both studies two animals were fitted with Lotek GPS 3300S collars (with integrated GPS data logger and removable battery pack) round the top of the neck. In study 1 two horses were fitted with collars and turned loose into a 20x40m sand arena for 45 minutes. Feed balls and hay were provided (in nets and on the ground) to encourage movement and feeding behaviour for comparison using the two methods (observation from digital video recordings and GPS). HD was recorded by the GPS collars for a significantly longer time (interpreted as feeding/grazing time) than that recorded by observation (p=0.004). However when the visual observation was split into HU, HD and also head in mid-way position (HMW), where the nose of the horse was level or just above the chest, then no difference between the collar (HU and HD) and visual observation for (HU and HD+HMW) was found. It is likely that when in HMW the GPS collar may not be sufficiently angled to trigger the sensor to record HU or the collar may move on the neck. Conclusions relating to time spent feeding should be treated with caution. In study 2, the collars were fitted to two ponies with access to 2.02 hectares of lowland grazing. Activity (distance travelled and speed) and location was recorded for 2 days. The total distance travelled by the ponies in 24 hours (2.84km) and their average speed (4.04m/minute) was calculated and showed no significant difference between day and night. The total area was split into four equal segments and there was no significant difference in the time the ponies spent in each area although they were found to move at slower speeds and stand for longer in some areas. Movement paths could be identified by inputting the GPS collar data into ArcGIS and viewed on Google Maps. There was a high level of comparability observed between the two ponies confirming behavioural synchronicity. As in other species, the use of GPS collars to monitor the movement and location of horses/ponies was found to be effective, but data relating to head position did not provide a reliable means of recording the time spent feeding.
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