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Rubin, L., Oppegard, C., & Hindz, H. F. (1980). The effect of varying the temporal distribution of conditioning trials on equine learning behavior. J. Anim Sci., 50(6), 1184–1187.
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of varying the temporal distrbution of conditioning sessions on equine learning behavior. In the first experiment, 15 ponies were trained to clear a small hurdle in response to a buzzer in order to avoid a mild electric shock. Three treatments were used. One group received 10 learning trials daily, seven times a week; one group was trained in the same fashion two times a week and one group was trained once a week. The animals conditioned only once a week achieved a high level of performance in significantly fewer sessions than the ones conditioned seven times a week, although elapsed time from start of training to completion was two to three times greater for the former group. The twice-a-week group learned at an intermediate rate. In the second experiment, the ponies were rearranged into three new groups. They were taught to move backward a specific distance in response to a visual cue in order to avoid an electric shock. Again, one group was trained seven times a week, one group was trained two times and one group was trained once a week. As in the first experiment, the animals trained once a week achieved the learning criteria in significantly fewer sessions than those trained seven times a week, but, as in trial 1, elapsed time from start to finish was greater for them. The two times-a-week group learned at a rate in-between the rates of the other two groups.
Keywords: Animals; Conditioning (Psychology); *Horses; *Learning
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Honeyman, M. S., & Miller, G. S. (1998). The effect of teaching approaches on achievement and satisfaction of field-dependent and field-independent learners in animal science. J. Anim Sci., 76(6), 1710–1715.
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Hall, C. A., Cassaday, H. J., & Derrington, A. M. (2003). The effect of stimulus height on visual discrimination in horses. J. Anim Sci., 81(7), 1715–1720.
Abstract: This study investigated the effect of stimulus height on the ability of horses to learn a simple visual discrimination task. Eight horses were trained to perform a two-choice, black/white discrimination with stimuli presented at one of two heights: ground level or at a height of 70 cm from the ground. The height at which the stimuli were presented was alternated from one session to the next. All trials within a single session were presented at the same height. The criterion for learning was four consecutive sessions of 70% correct responses. Performance was found to be better when stimuli were presented at ground level with respect to the number of trials taken to reach the criterion (P < 0.05), percentage of correct first choices (P < 0.01), and repeated errors made (P < 0.01). Thus, training horses to carry out tasks of visual discrimination could be enhanced by placing the stimuli on the ground. In addition, the results of the present study suggest that the visual appearance of ground surfaces is an important factor in both horse management and training.
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Broucek, J., Ksac, P., & Uhrincat, M. (2003). The effect of sire line on learning and locomotor behaviour of heifers. Czech J. Anim. Sci, 48, 387–394.
Abstract: ABSTRACT: e aim of this study was to test the effect of sire line on maze learning ability and locomotor behaviour
in open-field tests of heifers, consistency over the time of grid crossing and relationship between the time of traversing the maze and grid crossings in open-field tests, respectively. We analysed the results of ethological tests for 54 Holstein heifers that descended from 7 sires. Maze behaviour was observed at the age of 15 weeks, an open-field test was applied at two age periods, 16 weeks and 18 months. We found out highly significant differences in the time of traversing the maze between heifers of different sire origin (P < 0.01). e number of grid crossings over the five minutes of the open-field test did not differ between the daughters of the age of 16 weeks and 18 months. Repeatability between the number of grid crossings at the age of 16 weeks and 18 months was proved by significant correlation (r = 0.2713*). On the contrary, significant relationships between the times of traversing the maze and locomotor behaviour in the open-field test (r =-0.3739*) were found only when the sequence of observations followed after a week pause (age of 15 and 16 weeks). Keywords: heifers; sire; maze; open-field test; repeatability; learning; locomotor behaviour relationship
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McGlone, J. J., & Hicks, T. A. (1993). Teaching standard agricultural practices that are known to be painful. J. Anim Sci., 71(4), 1071–1074.
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Houpt, K. A., Zahorik, D. M., & Swartzman-Andert, J. A. (1990). Taste aversion learning in horses. J. Anim Sci., 68(8), 2340–2344.
Abstract: The ability of ponies to learn to avoid a relatively novel food associated with illness was tested in three situations: when illness occurred immediately after consuming a feed; when illness occurred 30 min after consuming a feed; and when illness was contingent upon eating one of three feeds offered simultaneously. Apomorphine was used to produce illness. The feeds associated with illness were corn, alfalfa pellets, sweet feed and a complete pelleted feed. The ponies learned to avoid all the fees except the complete feed when apomorphine injection immediately followed consumption of the feed. However, the ponies did not learn to avoid a feed if apomorphine was delayed 30 min after feed consumption. They could learn to avoid alfalfa pellets, but not corn, when these feeds were presented with the familiar “safe foods,” oats and soybean meal. Ponies apparently are able to learn a taste aversion, but there were constraints on this learning ability. Under the conditions of this study, they did not learn to avoid a food that made them sick long after consumption of the food, and they had more difficulty learning to avoid highly palatable feeds.
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Walter, G., & Reisner, A. (1994). Student opinion formation on animal agriculture issues. J. Anim Sci., 72(6), 1654–1658.
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Sweeting, M. P., Houpt, C. E., & Houpt, K. A. (1985). Social Facilitation of Feeding and Time Budgets in Stabled Ponies. J. Anim Sci., 60(2), 369–374.
Abstract: Eight pairs of pony mares were observed. Members of a pair were housed in adjacent stalls and fed hay ad libitum. The behavior of both ponies was recorded simultaneously in the morning (1000 to 1200 h) and afternoon (1400 to 1600 h) for a total of 117 h. The time budget was: 70.1 {+/-} 8.6% eating; 17.8 {+/-} 7.4% standing (including stand rest, stand alert and stand nonajert); 5.2 {+/-} 7.0% pushing hay; 2.9 {+/-} 1.2% walking; 1.9 {+/-} 2.9% drinking; 1.3 {+/-} 1.1% self-grooming; .2 {+/-} .3% defecating; .06 {+/-} .1% chewing nonfood items; .06 {+/-} .03% urination; .06 {+/-} .1% licking salt; .07 {+/-} .1% pawing hay; .6 {+/-} .7% lying and .07 {+/-} .08% stretching the neck over the stall wall dividing the ponies. While eating, the ponies lifted their heads 25.4 {+/-} 11.0 times/h. In less than one-half of the occasions when urination or defecation was observed, the ponies walked away from the spot where they had been eating to eliminate. During one-half of the observations, visual contact between the ponies was prevented by a solid partition between the stalls. The ponies spent significantly more time standing nonalert when the partition prevented visual contact (12 {+/-} 7%) than when visual contact could take place (6 {+/-} 3%, P<.05). When fresh hay was supplied in the mornings, the ponies spent similar amounts of time eating whether visual contact was allowed or not, but in the afternoon significantly more time was spent feeding when visual contact was allowed (73 {+/-} 4%) than when it was not (60 {+/-} 7%). Less time was spent eating, in the absence of visual contact, despite the presence of auditory and olfactory contact. Apparently social facilitation is important in maintaining feeding behavior in ponies. N1 -
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Marc, M., Parvizi, N., Ellendorff, F., Kallweit, E., & Elsaesser, F. (2000). Plasma cortisol and ACTH concentrations in the warmblood horse in response to a standardized treadmill exercise test as physiological markers for evaluation of training status. J. Anim Sci., 78(7), 1936–1946.
Abstract: Reliable physiological markers for performance evaluation in sport horses are missing. To determine the diagnostic value of plasma ACTH and cortisol measurements in the warmblood horse, 10 initially 3-yr-old geldings of the Hannovarian breed were either exposed to a training schedule or served as controls. During experimental Phase 1, horses were group-housed, and half of the horses were trained for 20 wk on a high-speed treadmill. During Phase 2, groups were switched and one group was trained for 10 wk as during Phase 1, whereas the control group was confined to boxes. During Phase 3 horses were initially schooled for riding. Thereafter, all horses were regularly schooled for dressage and jumping, and half of the horses received an additional endurance training for 24 wk. During all phases horses were exposed at regular intervals to various standardized treadmill exercise tests. During and after the tests frequent blood samples were taken from an indwelling jugular catheter for determination of ACTH and cortisol. Treadmill exercise increased both hormones. Maximum ACTH concentrations were recorded at the end of exercise, and maximum cortisol levels were recorded 20 to 30 min later. Except for one test there were no differences in ACTH levels between trained horses and controls. There was no significant effect of training on the cortisol response (net increase) to treadmill exercise in any of the tests during Phase 1. During Phase 2 higher cortisol responses were recorded in controls than in trained horses (P < .05) after 10 wk of training (controls confined to boxes). During Phase 3 plasma cortisol responses were also higher in controls than in trained horses (P < .05 after 6, 18, and 24, P < or = .07 after 12 wk of training) when the inclination of the treadmill was 5%, but not at 3%. There was no overlap in net cortisol responses at 30 min between trained and untrained horses. An ACTH application after 24 wk of training resulted in higher cortisol responses in controls than in trained horses (P < or = .05), without any overlap between the groups at 30 min after ACTH. Plasma cortisol responses to either treadmill exercise or ACTH injection may be a reliable physiological marker for performance evaluation. Prerequisites are sufficient differences in training status and sufficient intensity of exercise test conditions.
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Craig, J. V. (1986). Measuring social behavior: social dominance. J. Anim Sci., 62(4), 1120–1129.
Abstract: Social dominance develops more slowly when young animals are kept in intact peer groups where they need not compete for resources. Learned generalizations may cause smaller and weaker animals to accept subordinate status readily when confronted with strangers that would be formidable opponents. Sexual hormones and sensitivity to them can influence the onset of aggression and status attained. After dominance orders are established, they tend to be stable in female groups but are less so in male groups. Psychological influences can affect dominance relationships when strangers meet and social alliances within groups may affect relative status of individuals. Whether status associated with agonistic behavior is correlated with control of space and scarce resources needs to be determined for each species and each kind of resource. When such correlations exists, competitive tests and agonistic behavior associated with gaining access to scarce resources can be useful to the observer in learning about dominance relationships rapidly. Examples are given to illustrate how estimates of social dominance can be readily attained and some strengths and weaknesses of the various methods.
Keywords: Aggression; Agonistic Behavior; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Cattle; Chickens; Competitive Behavior; Female; Horses; Male; *Social Dominance; Swine
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