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Mench, J. A., Morrow-Tesch, J., & Chu, L. - R. (1998). Environmental enrichment for farm animals. Lab Anim., 27, 32–36.
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Hampson, B. A., Zabek, M. A., Pollitt, C. C., & Nock, B. (2011). Health and behaviour consequences of feral horse relocation. Rangel. J., 33(2), 173–180.
Abstract: Despite ongoing projects involving the breeding and release of equids into semi-wild and wild environments, insufficient information is available in the literature that describes strategies used by equids to adapt and survive in a novel environment. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of naïve, feral Equus caballus (horse) mares to cope in a novel feral horse environment and investigate possible reasons why some may not survive this challenge. Four mares taken from a semi-arid desert environment remained in good health but significantly changed their movement behaviour pattern when surrounded by prime grazing habitat in a mesic temperate grassland. Three of the four mares captured from the prime grazing habitat and released in the semi-arid desert habitat died, apparently due to stress and/or starvation, within 8 weeks of release. The fourth mare survived 4 months but lost considerable weight.The group of mares relocated to the semi-arid desert environment had difficulty adapting to relocation and did not take up the movement behaviour strategy of local horses, which required long distance treks from a central water hole to distant feeding areas at least 15 km away. The movement behaviour, range use and health consequences of relocating equids may be of interest to wildlife ecologists, animal behaviourists and horse welfare groups. The observations may be used to guide those intending on relocating managed domestic and native horses to novel habitats.
Keywords: equine, GPS, movement, range.
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Bailey, D. (2016). Dominance Hierarchies in Horses: Comparing and Contrasting Different Methods for Assessing Hierarchies. Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado, 5(3).
Abstract: Understanding animal social structures is imperative when it comes to the care, housing and handling of large herd animals. Knowing how hierarchies are structured, along with environmental and physiological aspects that may affect them, will allow owners and breeders to house and care for their animals. The aim of my study was to better understand two methods used to assess dominance hierarchies in horses, Equus caballus, and to predict which method would be more useful for owners housing domestic horses. I designed an experiment where I compared a structured method, the paired feeding test, with behavioral observations from the horses’ natural setting. I hypothesized that the structured method would not conclude the same dominance hierarchy as the natural observations. I also hypothesized that traits of the horses, such as size or age, would correlate with the hierarchy ranking within a herd. A herd of six individual horses from a small ranch east of Platteville, Colorado was used to test the two methods. I found that the two methods measured different hierarchies. The paired feeding test showed no correlations to any of the physical measurements, as well as did not provide a hierarchy that was similar to the natural dominance observations of the horses. Natural observations established a more linear hierarchy and had significant correlations with weight and overall body size. The results indicate that the paired feeding test may not be a valid method for establishing dominance hierarchies within domestic horses housed in a small range.
I recommend use of natural observations over paired feeding tests for ranchers, breeders or owners trying to understand the dominance hierarchies among their herds. |
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Leiner, L. (2006). Vergleich verschiedener Methoden zur Angstextinktion bei Pferden. Diploma thesis, , .
Abstract: Pferde sind Fluchttiere. Ihr Fluchtinstinkt bewirkt, dass sie sich leicht erschrecken und auch in
diversen Situationen mit Flucht reagieren. Diese Tatsache ist den meisten Reitern bekannt, nur ist es für den Menschen teilweise schwer, mit dieser Eigenschaft auszukommen und sie zu verstehen oder gar nachzuvollziehen. So kommt es häufig zu Unfällen, die aus der Angst der Pferde resultieren, jedoch vermeidbar gewesen wären, hätte man ankündigende Signale früher erkannt. Des Weiteren kann die Angst eines Pferdes auch durch eine (Ver-) Weigerung, bestimmte Dinge zu tun, sichtbar werden. Diese Weigerung wird in der Reiterei gerne als „Bockigkeit“ und „Ungehorsam“ des Pferdes interpretiert und führt nicht selten zu einer Bestrafung. Insgesamt kann man sagen, dass angstauslösende Reize und die Reaktionen des Pferdes darauf oft falsch eingeschätzt oder falsch interpretiert werden und in der Folge auch falsch damit umgegangen wird. Ein Grund dafür ist sicher das fehlende Wissen über das Verhalten des Pferdes. Mit der vorliegenden Diplomarbeit soll ein Beitrag geleistet werden, das Pferd in seinem Angstverhalten besser zu verstehen. Ziel der Arbeit war es, das Verhalten des Pferdes bei verschiedenen Intensitäten von Angst zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren wurden Methoden untersucht, mit denen man die Angst von Pferden vor bestimmten Reizen und Situationen potentiell lindern kann, was letztendlich auch der Unfallvorbeugung dient. Die vorliegende Diplomarbeit wurde am Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach durchgeführt; 24 Junghengste standen hierfür zur Verfügung. Darunter waren 18 Deutsche Warmblüter, 3 Vollblutaraber und 3 Schwarzwälder Füchse (Kaltblüter), somit war auch ein Rassenvergleich möglich. In einem ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde untersucht, wie sich Angst bei Pferden äußert. Hierfür wurde ausgenutzt, dass Pferde ganz generell vor unbekannten, neuen Gegenständen Angst haben (= Neophobie). Zur Angstauslösung dienten als Konfrontationsgegenstände ein Sonnenschirm und eine Plastikplane. Beide Gegenstände waren für die Testpferde unbekannt. Das Verhalten sowie die Herzrate der Tiere wurden während aller Versuche beobachtet und quantifiziert. Nacheiner ersten Konfrontation wurden die Pferde an die Objekte gewöhnt (Extinktionstraining = Angstlöschung) und beobachtet welche Verhaltensymptome sich während dieser Gewöhnung (= Verlust der Neophobie) verändern. Die Hypothese war, dass tatsächliche Angstsymptome während der Gewöhnung immer seltener zu beobachten sind. Zusammenfassung III Als Verhaltensweisen für Angst konnten Ausweichbewegungen und Flucht, Lautäußerungen (Prusten und Schnauben), das Anspannen der Halsmuskulatur sowie das Vordrücken der Oberlippe identifiziert werden. Darüber hinaus wurde gezeigt, dass Abstufungen im Angstverhalten möglich sind: Bei sehr hohem Angstlevel sind Fluchtreaktionen zu beobachten. Bei mittlerem Angstlevel treten Ausweichbewegungen im Schritt und Lautäußerungen (Prusten und Schnauben) auf, bei geringem Angstlevel wird die Halsmuskulatur angespannt und die Oberlippe vorgedrückt. Im Zweiten Teil der Arbeit sollten verschiedene Methoden zur Angst-Extinktionauf ihre Wirksamkeit hin untersucht werden. Verwendet wurde in verschiedenen Testgruppen die Methode der Desensibilisierung (d.h. leichte, schrittweise stärker werdende Exposition gegenüber dem angstauslösenden Reiz), die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung (positive Verstärkung) durch Streicheln bzw. Reiben des Halses und die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung durch Futterbelohnung. Als Kontrollgruppe dienten Pferde, die ohne eine Konfrontation mit dem angstauslösenden Reiz nur über den Versuchplatz geführt wurden. Während des Extinktionstrainings konnte beobachtet werden, dass die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung zu einer schnelleren Extinktion führt als ohne Gegenkonditionierung. Allerdings zeigte ein Vergleich mit der Kontrollgruppe, die das Extinktionstraining nicht erfahren hatte, den gleichen Verlust an Angstverhalten wie die Gruppen mit Extinktionstraining. Dieses Ergebnis wurde so interpretiert, dass die wiederholte Exposition gegenüber angstauslösenden Reizen bei den durchgeführten Verhaltenstests zwar eine Rolle spielt, doch dass auch allein die Beschäftigung mit den Tieren zu einem Verlust von Angstverhalten führt (wahrscheinlich auch aufgrund eines wachsenden Vertrauens zur Führperson, die über das komplette Experiment hin die Gleiche blieb). |
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Kiliç, S., & Cantürk, G. (2017). Car Accident Due to Horse Crossing the Motorway: Two Case Reports. Bull. Leg. Med., 22.
Abstract: Basic Commercial Court in Ankara wanted a report from our department of forensic medicine about two injury cases due to animal vehicle collision. The reports should include the disability rate and the duration of unfunctionality. After the examination we prepared the reports. Both vehicle collisions happened due to free ranging horse crossing the motorway. Both cases had different types of injury due to trauma. Vehicle collision due to horse crossing the motorway is rarely met in Turkey.
Our first case is a man that had upper extremity and facial injury. He uses prothesis due to ear amputation. He has a scar tissue on the right side of his face and left forearm. The other case is three-years-old boy that had cranial bone fracture and cranial hematoma. He has also hemiparesis of the right side of body. Both cases have neurologic sequels but they have no psychiatric sequels. In literature, animal vehicle collisions involve lots of animal species such as kangaroo, deer, camel and moose. Animal vehicle collision involving the horses is rarely met. Forensic medicine specialists should state the causal link between traumatic events and disabilities in order to help justice. Our aim to present the current two cases is investigation of injuries of animal related collision and makes forensic medicine specialists pay attention to the subject of preparing reports about such cases. |
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Schwenk, B. K., Fürst, A. E., & Bischhofberger, A. S. (2016). Traffic accident-related injuries in horses. Equine Med., 32(3), 192–199.
Abstract: Horses involved in road traffic accidents (RTAs) are commonly presented to veterinarians with varying types of injuries. The aim
of this study was describe the pattern and severity of traffic accident-related injuries in horses in a single hospital population. Medical records of horses either hit by a motorized vehicle or involved in RTAs whilst being transported from 1993 to 2015 were retrospectively reviewed and the following data was extracted: Signalement, hospitalisation time, month in which the accident happened, cause of the accident, place of the accident and type of vehicle hitting the horse. Further the different body sites injured (head, neck, breast, fore limb, abdomen, back and spine, pelvis and ileosacral region, hind limb, tail and genital region), the type of injury (wounds, musculoskeletal lesions and internal lesions) and the presence of neurological signs were retrieved from the medical records. 34 horses hit by motorized vehicles and 13 horses involved in RTAs whilst being transported were included in the study. Most of the accidents where horses were hit by motorized vehicles occurred during December (14.7%) and October (14.7%), horses were most commonly hit by cars (85.3%) and the majority of accidents occurred on main roads (26.5%). In 29.4% of the cases, horses had escaped from their paddock and then collided with a motorized vehicle. Most of the accidents with horses involved in RTAs whilst being transported occurred during April (30.8%) and June (23.1%). In 76.9% of the cases the accident happened on a freeway. In the horses hit by motorized vehicles the proximal hind limbs were the body site most commonly affected (44.1%), followed by the proximal front limbs (38.2%) and the head (32.4%). When horses were involved in RTAs whilst being transported the proximal fore limbs (61.5%), the proximal hind limbs (53.8%) and the distal hind limbs, back and head (38.5% each) were the most common injured body sites. Wounds were the most common type of injury in both groups (85.3% hit by motorized vehicle, 76.9% transported ones). In horses hit by a motorized vehicle 35.3% suffered from fractures, in 20.6% a synovial structure was involved and in 5.9% a tendon lesion was present. 14.7% suffered from internal lesions and 14.7% showed neurologic symptoms (40% peripheral, 60% central neurologic deficits). On the other hand, in horses involved in a RTA whilst being transported 30.8% suffered from fractures. There were no synovial structures injured and no tendon injuries were present. Furthermore there were no internal lesions present and only one horse involved in a RTA showed central neurologic symptoms. Injuries of horses being hit by a motorized vehicle were more severe than when horses were protected by a trailer and involved in a RTA whilst being transported. The study has been able to identify the different injury types of traffic accident-related injuries in horses. Awareness of the nature of these injuries is important, to avoid underestimation of their severity. |
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López-Bao, J. V., Sazatornil, V., Llaneza, L., & Rodríguez, A. (2013). Indirect Effects on Heathland Conservation and Wolf Persistence of Contradictory Policies that Threaten Traditional Free-Ranging Horse Husbandry. Conservation Letters, 6(6), 448–455.
Abstract: Conservation agencies within the European Union promote the restoration of traditional land uses as a cost-effective way to preserve biodiversity outside reserves. Although the European Union pursues the integration of the environment into strategic decision-making, it also dictates sectoral policies that may damage farmland biodiversity. We illustrate this point by outlining the socioeconomic factors that allow the persistence of traditional free-ranging horse husbandry in Galicia, northwestern Spain. Free-ranging Galician mountain ponies provide ecological and socioeconomic services including the prevention of forest fires, the maintenance of heathlands and wolves, and the attenuation of wolf-human conflicts. This traditional livestock system may have persisted because it entails negligible costs for farmers. Wolf predation upon Galician mountain ponies does not threaten farmer's economies and seems to be tolerated better than attacks to more valuable stock. Recently, European Union's regulations on animal welfare, carcass management, or meat production put new economic and administrative burdens on farmers, make free-ranging horse rearing economically unsustainable, and incentivize its abandonment. The aim of the European Union to integrate environmental policies may be successful to preserve farmland biodiversity only through careful anticipation of the side effects of apparently unrelated regulations on the fragile equilibrium that sustain traditional land uses.
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Pérez-Barbería, F. J., Shultz, S., & Dunbar, R. I. (2007). Evidence for coevolution of sociality and relative brain size in three orders of mammals. Evolution, 61.
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Van Schaik, C. P., & Burkart, J. M. (2011). Social learning and evolution: the cultural intelligence hypothesis. Philos Trans R Soc B, 366.
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Heyes, C. (2012). What's social about social learning? J Comp Psychol, 120.
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