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Milton, K. (1988). Foraging behaviour and the evolution of primate intelligence. In R. Byrne, & A. Whiten (Eds.), Machiavellian Intelligence (pp. 285–409). Oxford: Oxford Univ Press.
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Berger, J., & Cunningham, C. (1988). Size-Related Effects on Search Times in North American Grassland Female Ungulates. Ecology, 69(1), 177–183.
Abstract: Feeding and searching (= vigilance) rates arise as a result of many interrelated factors including trophic level, diet, reproductive condition, sex, habitat, body mass, and potential predation pressure. Because of unique ecological conditions in which the confounding influences of all but two of these variables could be minimized, we examined the hypothesis that body mass alone accounts for interspecific differences in search times, and tested it with females of four sympatric native North American ungulates (Bison bison, Antilocapra americana, Ovis canadensis, and Odocoileus hemionus). When the effects of group size were controlled, smaller bodied species were more vigilant (per unit body mass) than larger ones. However, search times (ST) also scaled to body mass, and between 81 and 97% of the ST variance was explained by either exponential or power functions. To remove the potential bias that predators exert different influences on species of varying size, search times of bison in areas with and without their major predator, wolves (Canis lupus), were contrasted; search times did not differ between sites. Our results highlight the importance of designing field research that controls for confounding variables prior to attempting to scale behavioral processes to ecological events. See full-text article at JSTOR
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Boyd L. (1988). The behaviour of Przewalski’s horses. Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
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Whiten, A., & Byrne, R. W. (1988). Tactical deception in primates. Behav. Brain Sci., 11(02), 233–244.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Tactical deception occurs when an individual is able to use an “honest” act from his normal repertoire in a different context to mislead familiar individuals. Although primates have a reputation for social skill, most primate groups are so intimate that any deception is likely to be subtle and infrequent. Published records are sparse and often anecdotal. We have solicited new records from many primatologists and searched for repeating patterns. This has revealed several different forms of deceptive tactic, which we classify in terms of the function they perform. For each class, we sketch the features of another individual's state of mind that an individual acting with deceptive intent must be able to represent, thus acting as a “natural psychologist.” Our analysis will sharpen attention to apparent taxonomic differences. Before these findings can be generalized, however, behavioral scientists must agree on some fundamental methodological and theoretical questions in the study of the evolution of social cognition.
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Black, J. M. (1988). Preflight Signalling in Swans: A Mechanism for Group Cohesion and Flock Formation. Ethology, 79(2), 143–157.
Abstract: Abstract The preflight behaviour of whooper swans Cygnus cygnus and Bewick's swans Cygnus columbianus bewickii was examined to determine the adaptive significance of the ritual. Analysis of the preflight sequence revealed that the rate of signalling became significantly faster as the time of takeoff approached. This provides the first quantitative evidence that a threshold of excitability is responsible for triggering synchronised flight in social units. Two ultimate and two proximate factors that affect this threshold were uncovered. They are: 1) Maintaining proximity to partners—flight was delayed by birds with non-attentive mates and signalling lasted on average four times longer than those whose mates showed more interest. 2) Maintaining flock cohesiveness—birds which performed signals for longer periods while swimming among uninterested birds were successful in attracting followers 61% of the time. 3) The bird's feeding performance related to dominance status—less successful feeders (potentially hungry birds), flew after little time and few signals. 4) The type of feeding opportunity at the eventual destination—birds which flew to provided feeds (nutritious barley) spent less time performing preflight signals than when they flew to forage on grass fields.
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Berger, J.,. (1988). Social systems, resources, and phylogenetic inertia: an experimental test and its limitations. In C. N. Slobochikoff (Ed.), Ecology of Social Behavior (pp. 157–186). San Diego: Academic Press.
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Marinier, S. L., Alexander, A. J., & Waring, G. H. (1988). Flehmen behaviour in the domestic horse: Discrimination of conspecific odours. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 19(3-4), 227–237.
Abstract: American Saddlebred horses were used to test the responses of domestic horses to the odours of conspecifics. In all cases the odours were tested in the absence of the donor animal. Thus the test animal's behavioural responses were concentrated on the olfactory stimuli, and possible interference from donor behaviour was eliminated. Stallions were significantly more responsive than mares and geldings. This was shown in both flehmen and sniffing behaviour to urine/vaginal secretions and in sniffing behaviour to faecal samples. Only stallions were used for subsequent tests. Stallions showed no significant differences in response to the odour of urine/vaginal secretions of an oestrus mare from that when she was not in season. Parameters used for analysis of data were frequency, latency and duration of flehmen as well as duration of responsiveness to samples. In testing for differences in odours between individual mares, two methods were used. The stallions differentiated between samples from individual mares. In some cases this differentiation was exhibited when the stallions were merely presented with the two samples in sequence. In other cases statistically significant differences in response to the odours were shown only by simultaneous presentation of the two samples to the test stallion. Parameters used for data analysis were frequency and duration of flehmen and duration of responsiveness.
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Houston, A. I., & McNamara, J. M. (1988). Fighting for food: a dynamic version of the Hawk-Dove game. Evol. Ecol., 2(1), 51–64.
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Feh, C. (1988). Social behaviour and relationships of Prezewalski horses in Dutch semi-reserves. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 21(1-2), 71–87.
Abstract: A short-term study was made of 2 groups of Przewalski horses, a bachelor group of 4 juvenile stallions in Ooij Polder and a harem group of 1 stallion and 4 mares. All social interactions were recorded and the nearest and farthest neighbour was noted. Correspondence analysis was used to determine what parameters determined the relationships among the horses. There was a linear hierarchy among the bachelor stallions. The dominant stallion of the group was also the oldest. The hierarchy was not linear in the harem group, and the 3-year-old stallion was subordinate to the 5-year-old mares. He was also most likely to be farthest from other horses. The mares of the same age, who had also arrived in the park at the same time, tended to be one another's nearest neighbours. The frequency of aggression is higher among Przewalski horses than among domestic horses of similar ages. Correspondence analysis revealed that head-threats and other forms of aggression accounted for more of the variance in the data than any other behaviour, but submission, play and social interactions also contributed.
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Keiper, R. R. (1988). Social interactions of the Przewalski horse (Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881) herd at the Munich Zoo. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 21(1-2), 89–97.
Abstract: Data were collected on 972 aggressions and 233 acts of mutual grooming in a herd of 9 Przewalski horses in the Hellabrunn Tierpark in Munich, West Germany. The herd was composed of 1 adult stallion, 5 adult mares and 3 foals. A distinct linear dominance hierarchy was present in the herd, with the stallion being the top-ranking animal. Age was significantly correlated with rank. Almost 40% of all aggressions consisted of herding actions by the stallion. Threats to bite (20% of all aggressions) and threats to kick (11.4%) were next in frequency of occurrence. Most mutual grooms (71%) involved grooming the front part of the body. Although mutual grooming may be used to appease higher-ranked animals, most grooming bouts were between related horses. Foals initiate 47.6% of all allogrooming. Mutual grooming may reduce weaning conflict between a mare and her foal or may result in female coalitions that defend against predators or aggression by the herd stallion.
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