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Skandakumar, S., Stodulski, G., & Hau, J. (1995). Salivary IgA: a Possible Stress Marker In Dogs. In Animal Welfare (Vol. 4, pp. 339–350).
Abstract: Stress in humans has been reported to be associated with a decrease in the salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) levels enabling the possible use of s-IgA to assess stress. Prolonged stress, if reliably assessed in a non-invasive manner, may be used to assess animal welfare. This study analysed groups of dogs undergoing physical and temperamental training and s-IgA levels were measured by rocket immunoelectrophoresis in prospective samples. Behavioural assessment was carried out and cortisol levels in saliva were measured by ELISA. A significant negative correlation (P < 0.007) between the logarithmic cortisol concentrations and s-IgA levels in saliva was recorded. The behavioural assessment of the dogs agreed well with the biochemical markers. It is concluded that IgA levels in saliva may be a useful marker of dog well-being and that stress results in decreased s-IgA levels.
Keywords: Animal Welfare; Behaviour; Cortisol; Dog; Salivary Iga (S-Iga); Stress; Well-Being
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Vetvik, H., Grewal, H. M. S., Haugen, I. L., Åhrén, C., & Haneberg, B. (1998). Mucosal antibodies can be measured in air-dried samples of saliva and feces. Journal of Immunological Methods, 215(1–2), 163–172.
Abstract: IgA antibodies reflecting airways or intestinal mucosal immune responses can be found in saliva and feces, respectively, and IgG antibodies reflecting serum antibodies can be found in saliva. In this study, antibodies were detected in samples of saliva and feces which had been air-dried at room temperature (+20°C) or +37°C, and stored at these temperatures for up to 6 months. In saliva the antibody levels increased, while the antibodies in feces decreased upon storage. The individual IgA antibody concentrations which were adjusted by using the ratios of specific IgA/total IgA were relatively stable in both saliva and feces, and correlated with corresponding antibody levels in samples which had been stored at -20°C. The results indicate that air-dried saliva and feces can be used for semiquantitative measurements of mucosal antibodies, even after prolonged storage at high temperatures and lack of refrigeration.
Keywords: Saliva; Feces; IgA; IgG; Air-drying
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Jafarzadeh A., Sadeghi M., Karam G.A., & Vazirinejad R. (2010). Salivary IgA and IgE levels in healthy subjects: relation to age and gender. Braz. Oral Res., 24(1), 21–27.
Abstract: It has been reported that the immune system undergoes age and gender changes. The aim of this study was to investigate the age- and gender-dependent changes of salivary IgA and IgE levels among healthy subjects. A total of 203 healthy individuals (aged 1-70 years) were enrolled in the study. Two milliliters of saliva were collected from all participants, and salivary IgA and IgE levels were measured by the ELISA technique. Mean salivary IgA levels were significantly higher in subjects aged 11-20 years as compared to subjects aged 1-10 years (P < 0.01). Mean salivary IgA levels increased with age up to the age of 60 years, and then slightly decreased in subjects aged 61-70 years. The frequency of subjects with detectable levels of salivary IgE and mean salivary IgE levels gradually increased with age, with maximum levels being observed in the 31-40 years age group and not changing significantly thereafter. The mean levels of salivary IgA and IgE in adults were significantly higher than those observed in children (P < 0.00001 and P < 0.05, respectively). No significant differences were observed between men and women regarding both salivary immunoglobulins. These results showed age-dependent changes of the salivary IgA and IgE levels. Gender had no effect on the salivary levels of IgA and IgE.
Keywords: Saliva; Immunoglobulin A; Immunoglobulin E; Adult; Child
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Palm, A. - K. E., Wattle, O., Lundström, T., & Wattrang, E. (2016). Secretory immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin G in horse saliva. Vet. Immunol. Immunolpathol., 180, 59–65.
Abstract: This study aimed to increase the knowledge on salivary antibodies in the horse since these constitute an important part of the immune defence of the oral cavity. For that purpose assays to detect horse immunoglobulin A (IgA) including secretory IgA (SIgA) were set up and the molecular weights of different components of the horse IgA system were estimated. Moreover, samples from 51 clinically healthy horses were tested for total SIgA and IgG amounts in saliva and relative IgG3/5 (IgG(T)) and IgG4/7 (IgGb) content were tested in serum and saliva. Results showed a mean concentration of 74μg SIgA/ml horse saliva and that there was a large inter-individual variation in salivary SIgA concentration. For total IgG the mean concentration was approx. 5 times lower than that of SIgA, i.e. 20μg IgG/ml saliva and the inter-individual variation was lower than that observed for SIgA. The saliva-serum ratio for IgG isotypes IgG3/5 and IgG4/7 was also assessed in the sampled horses and this analysis showed that the saliva-serum ratio of IgG4/7 was in general approximately 4 times higher than that of IgG3/5. The large inter-individual variation in salivary SIgA levels observed for the normal healthy horses in the present study emphasises the need for a large number of observations when studying this parameter especially in a clinical setting. Moreover, our results also indicated that some of the salivary IgG does not originate from serum but may be produced locally. Thus, these results provide novel insight, and a base for further research, into salivary antibody responses of horses.
Keywords: Equine; Secretory IgA; IgG; Saliva; Mucosal immunity
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Peeters, M., Sulon, J., Beckers, J. - F., Ledoux, D., & Vandenheede, M. (2011). Comparison between blood serum and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses using an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge. Equine Veterinary Journal, 43(4), 487–493.
Abstract: Reasons for performing study: In horses, serum cortisol concentration is considered to provide an indirect measurement of stress. However, it includes both free and bound fractions. The sampling method is also invasive and often stressful. This is not the case for salivary cortisol, which is collected using a more welfare-friendly method and represents a part of the free cortisol fraction, which is the biologically active form. Objectives: To compare salivary and serum cortisol assays in horses, in a wide range of concentrations, using an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test, in order to validate salivary cortisol for stress assessment in horse. Methods: In 5 horses, blood samples were drawn using an i.v. catheter. Saliva samples were taken using swabs. Cortisol was assayed by radioimmunoassay. All data were treated with a regression method, which pools and analyses data from multiple subjects for linear analysis. Results: Mean ± s.d. cortisol concentrations measured at rest were 188.81 ± 51.46 nmol/l in serum and 1.19 ± 0.54 nmol/l in saliva. They started increasing immediately after ACTH injection and peaks were reached after 96 ± 16.7 min in serum (356.98 ± 55.29 nmol/l) and after 124 ± 8.9 min in saliva (21.79 ± 7.74 nmol/l, P<0.05). Discharge percentages were also different (225% in serum and 2150% in saliva, P<0.05). Correlation between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations showed an adjusted r2= 0.80 (P<0.001). The strong link between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations was also estimated by a regression analysis. Conclusions: The reliability of both RIAs and regression found between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations permits the validation of saliva-sampling as a noninvasive technique for cortisol level assessment in horses.
Keywords: horse; cortisol; ACTH challenge; saliva; stress
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Tiefenbacher, S., Lee, B., Meyer, J. S., & Spealman, R. D. (2003). Noninvasive technique for the repeated sampling of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys. Am. J. Primatol., 60(2), 69–75.
Abstract: The use of noninvasive measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function is of growing interest among preclinical and clinical investigators. This report describes a method for the repeated assessment of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) based on a saliva sampling technique previously developed for rhesus monkeys. Individually housed adult male squirrel monkeys were trained to chew on dental rope attached to a pole, from which saliva was extracted by centrifugation and analyzed for cortisol by radioimmunoassay (RIA). Eight of nine monkeys readily acquired the task, reliably providing adequate saliva samples for the assay. Salivary free cortisol levels were examined in these subjects under basal conditions and in response to two types of neuroendocrine challenge. Levels of salivary free cortisol showed relatively low intra- and interindividual variability, with mean individual morning levels ranging between 17.1 and 37.9 µg/dl. Squirrel monkeys demonstrated a consistent daily rhythm in salivary free cortisol ranging from a high of 27.4 ± 5.2 µg/dl (mean ± SEM) at 12 P.M. to a low of 7.5 ± 1.6 µg/dl at 6 P.M.. Intravenous (IV) challenges with 1 µg/kg ACTH, or 10 and 50 µg/kg CRF resulted in significant increases in salivary free cortisol. The described sampling technique provides a reliable and sensitive means for repeated measurement of HPA activity in unrestrained, awake squirrel monkeys. In addition, our findings illustrate several features of HPA system rhythmicity and reactivity using salivary cortisol instead of blood plasma or serum. Am. J. Primatol. 60:69–75, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Keywords: saliva; cortisol; squirrel monkey; sampling technique; Hpa
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